Cars are automobiles that can transport people.
 It is the main means of travelling for hundreds of millions of people all over the world. 
Cars have changed the way we live probably more than any other invention in history. 
At first only a few people had cars but after a while more and more people bought them because they improved the way people lived. 
Farmers with cars were able to bring their products to places that were farther away. 
The appearance of cities and towns also changed. More and more workers drove to their jobs and people started to move to suburbs outside the town centers.
Automobiles give people many jobs. 
Millions of people around the world work in factories where cars are produced. 
Millions more work at gas stations, restaurants or motels that travelers stop at.
However, cars also cause problems. 
Millions of people die in car accidents every year. 
Automobiles pollute the air that we breathe and parking space in cities is scarce because everyone wants to use their cars to get to city centers.
Cars are very complicated machines and all systems in them work together. 
They power a car, control and steer it and make it comfortable for people to drive in.
The heart of every car is its engine. 
It produces the power that turns the wheels and electricity for lights and other systems.
Most automobiles are powered by an internal combustion engine. 
Fuel, usually gasoline or petrol, is burned with air to create gases that expand. 
A spark plug creates a spark that ignites the gas and makes it burn. 
This energy moves through cylinders in which pistons slide up and down. 
They are attached to rods that move a crankshaft. 
Normal car engines have four to six cylinders but there are also models with eight and sixteen cylinders. 
The turning movement is passed through the drivetrain to the drive wheels.
The fuel system pumps petrol from the tank to the engine. 
Older cars used to have carburetors that mix fuel with air and send the gas to the engine. 
Some cars have a special fuel injection system that sprays petrol into the engine. 
Modern cars have turbo chargers that suck in extra air and therefore create more power.
The engine and all parts that carry power to the wheels are called the drivetrain. 
It includes the transmission, drive shaft, differential, the axles and the drive wheels that move the car. 
While most cars have drive wheels in the front, some have them in the back.
 Cars that need to drive over all kinds of ground have a four-wheel drive.
The transmission controls the speed and torque. 
When a car travels at a normal speed on a flat road it does not need so much torque to keep it moving, but when you want to start a car from a hill the engine must produce more power. 
Gears control speed and power of the engine in different driving conditions.
In cars with manual transmission you have to change gears by pressing down the clutch with your foot and moving a lever. 
Cars with automatic transmission change gears without control by the driver. 
Lower gears give the car more torque and speed. When the car moves faster the transmission shifts to higher gears.
The driveshaft carries the power to the axle which is connected to the wheels. 
It has several joints which make the axle and wheels moveable as the car drives on uneven and bumpy roads.
The differential is connected to the rear end of the driveshaft. 
It lets the wheels turn at different speeds because in curves the outer wheels must travel a greater distance than the inner ones.
The steering system controls the front wheels. 
Turning the steering wheel makes them point to the left or right. 
Most cars have power steering; a hydraulic system makes it easier for the driver to turn the wheels.
The brake system slows down or stops the car. Brakes operate on all four wheels. 
There are two basic types of brakes: drum or disc brakes.
 In both cases a friction pad is pressed against a drum or disc with the help of a hydraulic system.
All cars have emergency hand brakes which you use if the hydraulic system fails. 
It is also called a parking brake because you use it to stop a vehicle from rolling down a hill. 
Antilock braking systems (ABS) keep the wheels turning when you step on the brakes. 
This computer controlled system prevents skidding if you are on a slippery road.
The suspension system supports the weight of the car. 
It has wheels, axles, tires and springs. 
Most cars have shock absorbers to guarantee a smooth ride. 
Springs are between the axles of the wheels and the body of the car. 
They allow each wheel to move up and down on its own. 
The tires also help to make driving smoother. 
They are built so that they give the car grip on roads in all conditions.
When a car burns fuel gases are produced. 
They must be removed so that new fuel can be burned. 
The pistons in the engine’s cylinders force gas out of the engine. 
It passes through a muffler into tail pipes. 
The muffler also keeps the car running quietly. 
For about thirty years cars have been equipped with a catalytic converter. 
It reduces pollution by converting harmful gases into carbon dioxide and water.
Burning fuel inside a car’s engine creates a lot of heat. 
Most of it has to be removed by a cooling system. 
Liquid cooling systems have a mixture of water and chemicals. 
A water pump forces this mixture to flow between the cylinders of the engine. 
The hot water is then pumped through a radiator where the air carries away the heat.
Oil is important for an engine to work.
It flows through the moving parts so that the metal does not rub against other metallic pieces. 
Without lubrication the metal would become too hot and the engine would be destroyed.
Oil is stored in an oil tank at the bottom of the engine. 
From there it is pumped around the engine. 
A filter removes dirt from the oil so that it won’t do any damage to engine parts. 
After you have driven a certain number of kilometers you must change the oil and the oil filter.
The dashboard has many instruments that show you how fast you are moving, the amount of petrol that is left in the tank, the oil temperature and some other information.
The body of the car is the outer shell that surrounds the mechanical parts and the passengers inside. 
Most bodies are made of steel, although some parts are made of strong plastic or fiberglass. 
The body includes the passenger compartment, hood, trunk and the fenders which cover the wheels.
Today all cars have safety features that protect passengers from accidents that may happen on the road. 
In almost every country passengers have to fasten their seat belts. 
Children and babies must be put in special seats.
Since the mid 1990s almost all cars have been equipped with air bags. 
They are normally in the steering wheel and if a car crashes they come out, inflate and protect the passengers from slamming into the front window. 
But there are other safety laws that carmakers must follow. 
Doors must have special locks that are crash resistant and bumpers must be able to absorb some force if the car crashes.
In the late 1770s Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, a French engineer, built a car that ran on steam. 
Many American companies also started producing them but they were very expensive to make and cost a lot of money.
As time went on, engineers started experimenting with petrol-driven cars. 
They could travel faster and over longer distances. 
They were also safer than steam-powered models which ran with petrol.
Towards the end of the 19 th century Germany became the centre of car-making. 
Nikolaus Otto built the first internal combustion engine, Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz also began building petrol-driven engines.
Automobile production in the USA began in the 1890s.
 It was Henry Ford who started producing cars on an assembly line. 
Workers do only one task and car parts pass on a conveyer belt. 
By 1908 Ford’s Model T became the most popular car in the world and by 1927 the Ford Motor Company had produced over 15 million of them.
After car production had slowed down during the two world wars car makers began adding new features to post - war models. Power steering, power brakes and automatic controls became common. 
More and more big cars were produced in the 1950s and 1960s. 
They used up a lot of fuel in a time in which oil was still very cheap.
This changed in the 1970s when Arab oil-producing countries started to raise prices for oil because western countries supported Israel.
In the years that followed much was done to try to save and conserve fuel. 
Automakers started producing compact cars that were fuel-efficient.
In the meantime, Japan and Europe had begun to compete with American carmakers. 
By 1980 Japan became the largest car producing countries in the world.
Even though today’s car is a great machine that is fast, elegant and beautiful to look at, engineers are constantly working on a car that will make today’s automobile look old. 
Experts say that future cars will be made of plastics and carbon fibers that will be stronger and lighter than steel.
As oil is becoming more and more expensive, alternative power sources are being explored. 
Biodiesel, hydrogen fuel cells, electric cars and hybrids are energy sources that carmakers may use in the future.
Cars are becoming computerized machines. 
Some day they may drive themselves. 
Highways and other roads could be built so that cars can be programmed to drive along them by autopilot while passengers sit in the back and relax. 
Such cars could be radar controlled to avoid contact with other vehicles on the road.
Sport Utility Vehicles (SUVs) have existed since the last 1940s, though they didn't gain the popular name until the 1980s.
Built on a light truck drivetrain, these vehicles mix rugged off-road performance with comfort and room to spare.
The earliest versions of this vehicle type developed out of military needs in World War II, which were eventually converted to civilian needs with the addition of doors and hard roofs.
Today, these vehicles are most associated with general toughness and excellent handling over a variety of terrains.
They've also become more luxurious, with many recent models featuring comforts designed for long off-road vacations.
Their popularity began to explode in the 1990s when a mix between market pressure towards larger vehicles and families' desires for safer vehicles came together.
For many households, SUVs were the ideal replacement for station wagons and minivans - they were about the same size, but with the added power, they were better at getting jobs done.
As an extension of this, SUVs are easy to find in the used car market, making them affordable on many different budgets.
That said, they do have some competition in crossovers, which have a lower and more car-like ride than SUVs.
Many SUVs sold today are equipped with four-wheel drive systems for maximum power, but it is possible to find two-wheel drive versions at a lower cost.
?This is especially helpful for families that don't need to go off-road very often and would rather save on purchase price and gas.
Modern SUVs are typically sold as mid-sized or full-sized - smaller SUVs are rare because, in most cases, they just don't fit what buyers are looking for.
Mid-size SUVs tend to have better handling and fuel economy, and they're fundamentally similar to crossovers (while having better towing and off-road abilities).
Full-size SUVs are more like pickup trucks with a huge cabin instead of a storage bed in the back.
?These vehicles typically seat as many as nine passengers, with enough towing ability to haul significant loads.?
?There is one other thing that's held SUVs back, however - fuel economy.
Full-size SUVs usually get around 20 combined miles per gallon, which is significantly lower than many other types of vehicles.
?It's not a surprise since they're built on the basic framework of trucks, but the higher fuel cost is something to keep in mind when deciding which type of vehicle to buy.
Trucks are one of the oldest types of vehicles in existence, with their earliest version appearing in the 1800s and starting to take off past 1900 as the steam wagon.
Throughout this time, trucks have remained true to their original purpose: carrying heavy cargo loads. 
The trucks most people think of when they hear the word are actually ""light trucks,"" car-sized vehicles meant for personal and small business use. 
This type of truck is what this guide focuses on.
 These trucks are sometimes referred to as ""pickup trucks"" instead (for reasons nobody knows), but regardless of the name, trucks are associated with power and toughness.
 Curiously, most people don't buy pickup trucks for work - instead, they're often selected as a lifestyle choice and used similarly to passenger cars. 
Accounting for almost 1 in 5 vehicles sold, trucks are easy to find on the used market and can often be rented for short-term needs. 
Since they're built for power, pickup trucks typically come in four-wheel drive versions capable of heavy rear loads and towing motorhomes, boats, or other large, heavy trailers behind them. 
Aside from the powertrain, however, there are two major types of trucks sold. 
The first version is the cargo-focused truck, which has a small passenger cabin and a large truck bed. 
These rarely carry more than three people in comfort but offer plenty of space for tools, gardening material, or anything else the owner wants to haul around. 
They're also a popular choice for carrying campers and other significant modifications.
 The second version is the passenger truck, which has a smaller cargo bed and a larger, two-row passenger cabin.
 This is more of a family or work crew vehicle and tends to come with more features and luxuries than the cargo-focused version. Regardless of style, trucks tend to be elevated higher off the ground than most other vehicles, making them more difficult to get in and out of.
 To solve this, it's common for manufacturers to add handlebars and steps that passengers can use when getting in and out, though it's rare to find steps that make it easy to get into an opened cargo bed. 
Other sizes of trucks include ultra-lights (which are typically 1-2 passenger vehicles meant for narrow spaces and graceful movement), medium trucks (which mostly see use with public utilities like firefighting and garbage collection), and heavy trucks (large dump trucks, heavy cargo trailers, and so on).
Sedans are passenger cars separated into three distinct sections - engine, passenger, and cargo. 
Most sedans have them in that order from front to back, but a few models switch the engine and cargo sections. 
Vehicles that lack engines, such as some modern electric vehicles, tend to have front and rear cargo sections instead. 
Sedans always seat at least four people, and more often five, between two rows of seats. 
Sedans also have at least 33 cubic feet of rear interior volume - any smaller and the vehicle is a coupe instead, regardless of configuration or seating. 
The earliest modern Sedan began production in 1899, though the name wouldn't come into common use until quite some time afterward. 
Since then, the basic format of the vehicle has remained the same, though it has split into two offshoots. 
The smaller version is the mid-size sedan, which usually has two single seats up front, a three-person bench in the rear, four doors, and a trunk for cargo. 
Full-size sedans are just like mid-size sedans, but generally larger all-around. 
Sport sedans are a variant model, offering more power and performance than standard models. 
Since their primary purpose is to get people from one place to another by way of paved roads, sedans are one of the most popular vehicles on the market and are usually bought by families that have minimal cargo-transportation needs. 
Sedans with plenty of cargo space are also popular as rental vehicles, and indeed, make up the majority of most rental fleets. 
Since they're not meant for rough off-road use, sedans tend to have a low wheelbase and center of gravity, and this typically serves them well. 
Two things tend to set sedans apart from each other. 
First are the exact dimensions of the vehicle, with consumers generally preferring sedans that have more leg, head, and cargo room. 
This is especially important for taller buyers since sedans don't always have enough clearance for them to sit in the vehicle comfortably. 
The second factor is the luxuries offered on each model. 
From modified blinkers to robust entertainment centers, sedans run the gamut between low-cost, no-frills transport and true luxury. 
In recent years, thanks to legislation and technological advancements, sedans have seen significant improvements in gas mileage and the types of engine offered, with hybrid and electric vehicles becoming an increasingly significant part of the market. 
With prices that are similarly diverse and plenty of used models on dealers' lots, sedans represent affordable transportation on just about any budget.
Tracing their descent from the covered caravans of old, vans are one of the most popular types of vehicles in the world. 
The main thing that distinguishes vans from trucks is the interior access to the cargo areas and the fully covered body. 
This makes vans more secure and more protected from the elements than trucks, making them better for many buyers' needs. 
Most vans are built in one of four styles. 
The most popular style for many families is the passenger van, which usually features three or four rows of seats and a small rear cargo area. 
Essentially a private bus, passenger vans are ideal for moving large families or groups of people with minimal fuss. 
While some passenger vans have doors for each row, it's more common to see doors only on the first two rows. 
Other passengers usually have to squeeze into the back.
 The second popular type of van is the cargo van, which removes most or all of the seats behind the front row in favor of open space. 
These vehicles often add cabinets or shelves with a center aisle for movement, allowing them to maximize the amount of cargo they can hold. 
Some cargo vans are used for surveillance or converted into mobile entertainment centers. 
The third type is the refrigerated van, though these are rarely bought by consumers - instead, they're used to carry things like specialty items like luxury foods or certain medical supplies.
 Finally, minivans are a smaller version of passenger vans and tend to have almost no cargo space, though the seats can fold down to make room.
On some models, the seats must be moved down for passengers who want access to the back row. 
Today, vans have largely fallen out of favor as passenger vehicles for families - SUVs tend to offer just as much space but more flexibility with cargo. 
Instead, they're often bought by clubs or groups. 
Cargo vans are used almost entirely by small businesses who need to transport lots of products or people on a regular basis. 
This includes many service industries, such as cleaners, plumbers, and technical support for telecommunication companies. 
Cargo vans are also the vehicles of choice for parcel delivery companies, though these businesses tend to prefer box-shaped vans over the smoother, more fuel-efficient passenger versions. 
There's some question about whether or not drone deliveries will undercut the market for vans, but for now, these remain the most effective way to transport 9-15 people or significant amounts of cargo.
Since the earliest iteration of the design in the 18th century, the coupe has been the small, sporty member of the vehicle family. 
Essentially a smaller version of sedans, coupes feature room for 2-4 passengers between one or two rows of seats.
While most coupes have a single door on either side, some versions have four doors for easy access to a rear passenger bench. 
These versions, in particular, are much like sedans, with the main difference being that coupes have less than 33 cubic feet of rear interior volume. 
Since these vehicles have almost no cargo space, they're rarely used as family vehicles. Instead, coupes are often driven for fun on racetracks, scenic roads, or day trips. 
Some companies have begun using the term coupe for marketing since the word is seen as more exciting than the ""boring"" family sedan. 
Ultimately, coupes tend to fall into one of two categories. 
Passenger coupes are simply a way of getting between two points with comfort and style. 
Sport coupes are more like racing vehicles - in fact, some really are racing vehicles - and have significantly more power and performance than their small size suggests. 
Most coupes sold today are sport coupes since there's little demand among families for vehicles that don't have the space to hold children and groceries at the same time. 
As luxury vehicles, coupes tend to come with more bells and whistles than their sedan equivalents, especially when it comes to performance and control. 
It's not hard to find coupes with hundreds of horsepower, allowing them to perform well even when loaded with as much as will fit. 
The biggest flaw in coupes is, perhaps, inevitable - they simply don't have the mass of larger vehicles. 
This can make them more dangerous during a collision, especially when a much larger vehicle is involved. 
This isn't as important for city driving, but it's something to think about if you're on the highway a lot. 
As far as fuel economy goes, coupes vary significantly.
Many of the better models receive at least 25 combined miles per gallon, but some hybrid and electric versions have achieved more than 100 combined miles per gallon. 
That said, there's usually a tradeoff between power and fuel economy, so it's important to check the exact specifications of any model you want to purchase. 
Don't limit yourself to the sticker price when deciding which coupe to buy - the long-term cost of ownership is a better measure for any vehicle, but it's especially applicable to coupes.
Wagons - also known variably as station wagons and estate cars - first began to appear in the 1930s as service vehicles in train depots. 
The focus was on commercial and business applications instead of consumer transport, but companies soon realized that the distinctive shaping offered value for families. 
Unlike sedans, which are split into the engine, passenger, and cargo sections, wagons only have two parts - the engine and a larger combined passenger/cargo area. 
Wagons are similar to hatchbacks, but typically prioritize cargo space and usefulness over style and aerodynamics. 
Today, wagons are seen as a smaller and more affordable alternative to SUVs and minivans, which have a similar design but are considerably larger overall. 
Since sales are low, there aren't too many used station wagons available - Subaru models being a notable exception since they continue to market and release wagons each year. 
Modern station wagons don't compete with each other on size - get too big and you end up with an SUV, which defeats the purpose of making a wagon in the first place. 
Instead, they compete on features, especially those associated with the tailgate and passenger seating. 
Wagons offer several tailgate designs worth considering. 
The most basic of these is the simple upper hinge, which lifts the entire door up. 
Wagons often include a motion sensor for 'no touch' entry, allowing you to open the rear without having to put down groceries or other cargo. 
The second type of liftgate is the dual gate, which has the window open up and the solid lower section fall down (to provide a step). 
This is seen as more of a working design since it allows access to things on the inside of the wagon without having to open the entire thing. 
A few models feature a foldable tailgate and a retractable roof, allowing the wagon to fit unusually tall objects. 
These wagons are effectively a sedan/truck hybrid, offering an unusual but surprisingly effective niche. 
Some station wagons are only a little larger than their sedan bases, but others have a pickup truck-length cargo area (especially on full-size wagons). 
Regardless of liftgate and cargo area style, most modern wagons have foldable rear seats so the vehicle can focus on passengers or cargo as needed. 
Mechanically, most wagons are based on a sedan wheelbase and have similar transmission, engine, and luxury options. 
Ultimately, wagons aren't for everyone, but they remain a popular choice for families who want more storage than a sedan without the cost of an SUV.
Convertibles first appeared on the market soon after automobiles were introduced, representing the choice of whether or not to drive with a roof. 
After all, not everyone wanted to drive in the rain, so cars couldn't be open forever. 
The earliest roofs were typically made of leather or folding textiles, but they began to fall out of favor in the 1920's when fully-enclosed steel vehicles started to see mass production. 
At this point, the remaining convertibles were luxury vehicles and ignored by most of the population. 
Convertibles experienced something of a renaissance after World War II when soldiers stationed in Europe began looking for roadster-like cars back home. 
Production surged for a few years but fell again in the 1970s as the noise of higher road speeds and improved safety standards made convertibles dubious at best. 
The proliferation of air conditioning further cemented the convertible's decline. 
However, newer advancements have helped the convertible return once again.
It's still seen as something of a luxury vehicle, but the varying styles have helped to overcome many of the convertible's biggest flaws. 
The most important part of a convertible is its roof, which generally comes in one of three styles. 
The most iconic style is the soft top, which is usually black and made of a mixture of materials including polyester, rubber, and canvas. 
These roofs need to be replaced every few years, but the fact that they can easily fold up and hide in the vehicle means storage isn't a concern. 
Rear windows are often made of plastic with this type of roof, but some convertibles have found a way to switch to glass. 
The second type of roof is the detachable hardtop, which can be stored in a garage whenever you don't want to drive with it. 
This is more popular on older models, but since the top needs to be left at home, it's the least secure model if you're parking elsewhere. 
The final type of convertible roof is the retractable hardtop, which can hide in the rear of the vehicle thanks to its mechanical systems. 
These are the safest type of convertible roof, but the added mechanical systems mean they're also the most expensive to install and maintain. 
Aside from the roof (and any necessary components thereof), convertibles are otherwise identical to the coupe or sedan base they're installed on. 
Regardless of style, convertibles are still considered luxury vehicles meant for people who enjoy feeling the wind as they drive.
Opinions vary on what defines a sports car. 
Some people use the term to describe any vehicle that has two seats, but for our purposes, the term refers to a lightweight, high-maneuverability, high-power vehicle. 
They should not be confused with muscle cars, which are larger and meant for high-speed racing. 
Most sports cars only seat two people, but the occasional four-door, five-passenger models exist. 
Despite the name, sports cars aren't always luxury vehicles - some of them are quite spartan. 
Sports cars have been an important part of the market since the 1920s when their high power and performance attracted people who just wanted to drive instead of move people or cargo between destinations. 
This distinction holds true today, as sports cars are still vehicles that are more about the journey than the destination. 
Several specific traits help to set the sports car apart from coupes and other ""sporty"" competition. 
First, the low center of gravity and precisely tuned steering offer maximum control even at high speeds. 
This allows sports cars to smoothly navigate roads that other vehicles find treacherous at best. 
Meanwhile, the light body of the vehicle ensures that the car can dedicate as much power as possible to speed and control, rather than moving the car itself. 
Power and performance are strongly influenced by the engine and drivetrain layout, and this may be the most important thing to evaluate if you're thinking about buying a sports car. 
The most common layout has a front engine and a rear-wheel-drive, but some models have switched to a rear engine with rear-wheel-drive. 
This is intended to help with weight distribution and improve handling, and it's used by manufacturers like Lamborghini and Ferrari. 
A rarer setup has a front engine and front-wheel-drive, which is prone to understeer. 
However, it's ideal for lighter and lower-power sports cars because it significantly reduces the vehicle's weight. 
If you're looking for a sports car at a lower price point, you may want to look at vehicles in this style. 
Four-wheel drive is rare on sports cars because it adds significant weight to the vehicle, but it can be found on high-power models with the horsepower to handle it. 
Today, sports cars aren't as popular as sedans or SUVs, but enough of them have been sold over the years to ensure a steady presence in new and used car lots. 
These vehicles don't work as family cars, but if you enjoy driving, it's hard to beat a sports car for pure power and pleasure.
Diesel isn't a type of vehicle - it's a type of engine. 
While most commonly associated with trucks and other high-power, heavy-duty vehicles, diesel engines have also been installed on SUVs, sedans, crossovers, and even some compact vehicles. 
The basic design of the diesel engine has been around since the 1800s, though it's received significant improvements over the years to enhance its power and overall efficiency. 
These engines have remained viable throughout the decades, serving as a steady companion to the more-popular Internal Combustion Engine seen on most passenger vehicles. 
Diesel engines aren't just ICE with a different type of gasoline, though - there are some significant differences between them. 
The most significant advantage is that diesel fuel has a higher energy density than gasoline - in effect, it takes less fuel to do the same amount of work. 
Depending on the efficiency of the engine, diesel fuel is about 10% to 15% more efficient than gasoline. 
As if that wasn't enough, diesel engines are about 15% more efficient at converting the energy into mechanical power. 
Together, these factors allow diesel engines to go about 20% to 35% farther on a single gallon, making them ideal for long-distance movement. 
Diesel engines also tend to be more reliable than their ICE counterparts - with no need for high voltage electronics, diesel vehicles are better in damp environments. 
The straightforward, high-powered construction gives the engines better longevity, too, with diesel engines typically lasting twice as long as their gasoline counterparts. 
Traditionally, diesel fuel exists as a fractional distillate of petroleum fuel oil, but advances in technology have seen the introduction of viable alternatives to petroleum. 
The most popular of these is biodiesel, which is produced by plants or animals to create a renewable source of energy. 
In most cases, biodiesel can be used in standard diesel engines with no need for additives or alterations, though some companies prefer to blend it with petroleum-based diesel (often called ""petrodiesel"") to help keep costs down. 
Other fuel variants include biomass to liquid (BTL) and gas to liquid (GTL), which respectively turn grasses and natural gas into viable diesel fuel. 
Neither of these is as popular as biodiesel or petrodiesel, but ongoing research and studies hope to change this. 
Thanks to all of these advantages, diesel engines aren't likely to disappear from the market anytime soon - especially when it comes to transporting heavy items over long distances. 
Battery-powered vehicles may become more popular someday, but the ease of producing biodiesel gives countries an effectively unlimited supply as long as there are power plants to create it.
Crossovers first began to show up in 1948 with the Willys-Overland Jeepster, though they wouldn't take the form we know for several more decades. 
At its core, the crossover is a vehicle that offers most of the features of an SUV but places them on a sedan or wagon base instead of a truck base. 
This offers generally better handling and control at the cost of some power and ability. 
Many consumers cannot see the difference between crossovers and SUVs, and for most of them, the distinction doesn't matter. 
Part of the confusion is driven by the use of ""crossover"" as a marketing tool, which blurs the line of expectations. 
Broadly, however, crossovers can be split into four major categories. 
Mini Crossovers are subcompact vehicles with mid-high rear roofs but short cargo areas. 
This makes them effective at hauling tall items like luggage, but the majority of interior space is focused on passengers.
Compact crossovers are a little larger and tend to feature more cargo space and a somewhat larger engine, making them a better choice for up to five passengers. 
Mid-size crossovers have significantly more cargo space than their smaller relatives, and it's here that they're easily mistaken for SUVs. 
The use of the crossover name in marketing certainly hasn't helped matters, but from the exterior and interior alike, mid-size crossovers look like SUVs. 
The main difference is in the mechanics, rather than the design. Full-size crossovers have a more distinctive cargo area, and many have a third row of seats that can be raised or lowered as needed. 
At this point, crossovers are closer to being a full-size SUV or a minivan than a sedan, but they still retain the lighter and agiler base. 
This makes full-size crossovers the ideal choice for groups that need to move a large family without too much extra weight or need for towing. 
In the modern market, crossovers are often lumped together with the SUVs they resemble - and by 2006, crossovers made up more than half of the overall SUV market. 
As things currently stand, crossovers are more popular with older segments of the population, who generally appreciate the roomy interiors, easy handling, and reasonable amounts of power. 
In many areas, crossovers have all but entirely replaced the smaller station wagons, lending credence to the belief that people want more cargo space as long as it doesn't increase the price too much. 
For the foreseeable future, crossovers are likely to remain a major segment of the market.
Luxury cars have existed for almost as long as cars themselves, but opinions vary on what a luxury car is. 
Some people define this as any vehicle from a luxury-focused brand like Rolls-Royce, while others believe that a luxury car is anything with features and gadgets beyond the basics. 
Also, what constitutes luxury has changed over time. Several years ago, electronic touchscreens and rear-view cameras were rare and exciting, but now they're expected on just about every vehicle. 
For our purposes, we're going to define a luxury car as any car that has significantly better equipment, performance, materials, comforts, technology, or features than most vehicles of its type. 
For many vehicles, this means the most expensive models in their line qualify as luxury cars thanks to a variety of standard and optional features. 
However, this does not mean that expensive vehicles are inherently luxurious - the premium version of a mass-market vehicle may have more comforts than a true luxury brand's entry-level model. 
The primary cause of this cost difference is the optics. 
Much like wearing an expensive watch, luxury vehicles are a status symbol meant to impress others. 
Any Mercedes-Benz is likely to be valued higher than a Honda or Mazda, regardless of their features and specifications. 
Most luxury cars are coupes or sedans, but there are a few luxury SUVs and Crossovers on the market. 
Minivans and trucks are almost never considered luxury vehicles - their respective emphasis on transporting many people and hauling heavy loads is seen as ""mundane"", and therefore lesser, though some people have modified these types of vehicles enough to make them luxurious. 
Regardless of manufacturer, several components are common (although not universal) in luxury vehicles. 
Two of the most popular choices are quality leather upholstery and wood-grain paneling, both of which provide a more natural, comfortable appearance. 
Luxury cars also tend to get new safety and entertainment features before the rest of the market - now-common features like DVD entertainment, anti-lock brakes, and electronic stability control all showed up on luxury cars before appearing anywhere else. 
For sporty vehicles, luxury cars tend to feature larger and more powerful engines as well as better handling and control. 
Naturally, all of these new features and luxuries come at a price. 
On average, a luxury car will likely cost at least $10,000 more than a mass-market competitor, even within the same model line. 
This doesn't include the price of optional features, many of which can drive up the price by another several thousand dollars.
A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a car that adds an electric motor and a battery to an existing internal combustion (or, more rarely, diesel) engine. 
While more expensive than a standard engine-only vehicle, this setup offers several notable advantages that many people feel justifies the added cost. 
First, and most importantly, many hybrid electric vehicles are capable of using only their onboard battery for short trips. 
This means you could go for days or even weeks without consuming fuel - and it's undoubtedly cheaper to recharge a battery than it is to fill a tank with gasoline. 
HEVs also use a variety of energy-saving and energy-generating technologies, such as regenerative brakes that charge the battery by converting the kinetic energy from braking into electrical power. 
Despite the recent surge in interest, HEVs aren't new.
 In fact, the Lohner-Porsche Mixed Hybrid vehicle was produced from 1900 to 1905, but limits on efficiency and energy storage stopped it from being a viable competitor for the other vehicles of the time. 
Today, the majority of hybrid electric vehicles are coupes and sedans, though the technology is slowly spreading to trucks, buses, and other types of vehicles. 
Most of these vehicles fit into one of two categories. 
Mild Hybrid vehicles emphasize fuel economy and can't run solely on their electric motor. 
For these vehicles, the electric motor is typically used when the car is stopped, braking, or coasting along, and the engine is restarted whenever power is needed. 
This delivers an overall improvement of about 15% for urban driving, which is where most mild hybrids are used. 
Full Hybrid vehicles are capable of running entirely on gasoline, entirely on electric, or in a combination. 
Full hybrids are seen as the better of the two types because they ultimately have much better fuel economy. 
Despite sharing the hybrid name, Mild Hybrid and Full Hybrid are distinctly different types of vehicles. 
This is why you should never buy a vehicle just because it has a ""hybrid"" in the name. 
Instead, take a careful look at the specifications to be sure the vehicle works the way you think it does. 
If you end up buying the wrong type of vehicle, you probably won't save as much money as you expected to. 
Also, remember that Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) have fast-charging batters and tend to have significantly better range than Full Hybrids.
 If you're worried about being caught with a dead battery and low fuel tank on a long trip, a PHEV is the best way to avoid that.
For classification purposes, automobile manufacturers have historically divided their light vehicle products into two categories, Automobiles and Light Trucks. 
Sales and marketing analysts use these classifications when discussing auto sales figures, so I’ll use them as well.
In the section called Hybrids, I discuss the new categories that cross the car-truck line, as well as the new alternative-powered cars.
Sedans are a good choice for most automobile shoppers.
The enclosed trunk offers security, while the rear doors allow easy entry for rear-seat passengers. 
Most luxury vehicles are four-door sedans because they’re more comfortable than most other body styles.
The smallest available in the US are sub-compact sedans like the Hyundai Accent and Chevrolet Metro. 
Slightly larger are compact models like the Honda Civic and Ford Focus.
Mid-size sedans include the Honda Accord, Toyota Camry, Ford Taurus, and Chevrolet Lumina, while the Ford Crown Victoria and Buick LeSabre are considered large sedans. 
Automotive marketers have created a new “near-luxury” sedan category, meaning any new sedan priced between $30,000 and $40,000, while the traditional luxury sedan costs over $40,000 when new. 
Near-luxury sedans are usually mid-sized; luxury sedans are usually large, though there are a few exceptions to the size and price limitations.
Coupes are usually driven by single adults or childless couples.
Many of them have a hatchback instead of a trunk, to allow large items to be carried for short distances. 
The rear seats are difficult to access, as the front doors must be used.
An active family will want to look at minivans, sport utility vehicles, or station wagons. 
In the rest of the world, station wagons remain the first choice for active families. 
In North America, first minivans and now SUVs have grabbed most of the station wagon’s customer base.
I have to admit that many minivans now drive and handle much like the wagons they’ve replaced, but I don’t understand the increasing popularity of large SUV’s. 
They’re twice as big as they need to be, but seat fewer people than a minivan; they get horrible gas mileage, and their truck-like ride and handling are rough.
You’ll pay substantially more to insure an SUV than a comparable automobile as a direct result of their poor handling. 
Many inexperienced drivers find out the hard way that SUVs don’t corner like automobiles.
I strongly suggest SUV shoppers reconsider and take another look at the station wagon. 
Station wagons offer more stability, better gas mileage, lower insurance rates, and SUV-sized interiors. 
You won’t lose your all-wheel drive either, as Subaru, Volkswagen, Audi, Volvo, and Mercedes-Benz offer all-wheel drive on all of their wagons.
Most convertibles are sports cars, meaning two seats, high-performance engines and superior handling. 
However, GM, Ford, Mitsubishi, and Chrysler offer a few “normal” convertibles, i.e. regular production coupes with four seats and convertible tops, such as the Chevrolet Cavalier, Pontiac Sunfire, Ford Mustang, Dodge Avenger, Chrysler Conquest and Mitsubishi Eclipse Spyder. 
Luxury convertibles are available from BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Saab, and Volvo. 
Convertibles are great when the weather’s perfect, but their drawbacks are obvious.
Sports cars were originally European two-seat roadsters designed for both daily travel and week-end racing hobbyists. 
A few 1950’s manufacturers (notably Jaguar and Alfa-Romeo) put permanent tops on their roadsters, resulting in the sports coupe.
The term sports-sedan is a more recent term to describe a four-door vehicle that handles like a sports coupe or roadster. 
Recently we’ve seen luxury cars advertised as luxury sports sedans. 
Porsche, selling traditional sports cars in this country since the 1950’s, until recently had as its only competition the Chevrolet Corvette.
1990 marked the return of the affordable sports car in this country, when Mazda offered its MX-5 (Miata) for under $20,000 dollars, and the incredible demand for it prompted other companies to follow suit.
BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Mitsubishi, and Porsche all introduced roadsters for under $40,000 in the latter part of the 1990’s. 
At the same time, Dodge dealers begged Chrysler to produce a 1993 concept car to give the Corvette a run for the money.
The Dodge Viper and Plymouth Prowler remain a success story for Chrysler, with this year’s production already sold out. 
Sports cars are cool and fun to drive, though impractical for daily transportation. 
You’ll need a garage to store them in, and a second mortgage to pay for their insurance. 
But if you’ve got money to burn, go for it!.
If you’re constantly carting kids or cargo, a minivan may be your best choice. 
Most newer models offer an additional 4th door on the driver’s side and offer comfortable seating for seven. 
Be aware of the different engines available.
I highly recommend you elect to get the largest ( 3.5 & 3.8 liter) engine available in whatever minivan you decide upon. 
Positively avoid buying a 4-cylinder Dodge or Chrysler minivan, they’re grossly underpowered and incapable of hauling heavy payloads for any distances. 
Most minivans are only available with front wheel drive, although Chrysler offers an optional all-wheel-drive system on certain models.
According to Crashtest.com, the Ford Windstar, Toyota Sienna, and ’99 & ’00 Honda Odyssey are three of the safest vehicles on the road today.
In addition, minivans drive and handle just like a car, with the bonus of better visibility due to a higher center of gravity and an upright driving position. 
Don’t look for minivans to handle your boat or trailer towing duties, as front wheel drive vehicles have a very limited towing capacity.
I mentioned in the Station Wagon category how I regard SUVs. 
Although they’re designed for off-road usage, 90% of them never leave the road, fortunately for our wildernesses. 
If a wagon isn’t for you, the car-like SUV’s ride and handle significantly better than the rest.
They include the BMW X-5, the Lexus RX 300, and the Mercedes-Benz ML320, ML430, and AMG-tuned ML55.
More new pickup trucks are sold in this country than any other type of vehicle.
The smaller models now offer quad or crew-cab four-door versions, with seating for 5 adults. 
Full-size models offer extended cabs with smaller third and fourth doors giving access to the rear seats.
Standard rear-wheel drive versions don’t handle well on snow or ice without a substantial amount of weight in the rear of the truck. 
When equipped with towing packages with 8- or 10-cylinder engines, these rear-wheel drive vehicles can tow large boats and trailers. 
Full-size 2-wheel and 4-wheel drive pickups get about 15 miles per gallon.
If you transport large amounts of cargo or need room for more than seven adults, a full-size van is your only option. 
They’re available with and without windows and in payload capacities of over one ton.
Extended vans can seat up to 15 adult passengers. 
Towing packages with 8- or 10-cylinder engines will allow these rear-wheel-drive vehicles to tow large boats and trailers.
A type of car in which the cargo area is located behind the rear pillars of the car, often separated from passenger cabin.
Compared to hatchbacks, sedans have better protection for the cargo against theft due to the lack of glass window.
A type of car in which the rear cargo door swings up when opened.
The rear window exposes the content of the cargo space, but can be covered up using mat. 
Traditionally, hatchbacks are usually taller than sedans with taller roof and taller driving position. 
With the seats folded, the cargo space can be linked with passenger room, creating a larger cargo space. 
Hatchbacks have shorter cargo length than sedans but in exchange they have superior height.
Minivans are bigger sized hatchbacks that often come with third row seats (6–8 seats). The main emphasize is on cabin space, which is why it’s often associated with family cars.
SUV is a type of car that emphasize on off-road capability. 
They are characterized by the tall ride height, boxy body shape (to make it easy to look around), tall bonnet (to see the distance between bonnet and object ahead), and most importantly, they use ladder frame chassis, which is also found in trucks. 
Ladder frame chassis is heavier than the usual monocoque chassis but has an advantage on off roading.
Often mistaken as SUV, CUV/crossover is probably the most confusing type of car. 
Some CUVs resemble the design of SUVs, but what makes it different is the chassis. 
SUVs use ladder frame chassis like trucks, while CUVs use the lighter monocoque chassis like sedans and hatchbacks. 
They are taller than hatchbacks, but not as spacious as minivans.
Pickup is a type of car in which the cargo is separated from the passenger cabin and has an open cargo bed, which can be closed with mat. 
The open cargo bed allows unlimited vertical space.
Coupes are basically cars with 2 doors. It can be based on sedan or hatchback.
Convertibles are cars that can fold its roof out, allowing passengers to interact with outdoor wind.
They have longer cargo length than sedan (or equally to sedan) with hatchback style cargo door. 
Station wagons are often a variation of an existing sedan/hatchback.
They have longer cargo length than sedan (or equally to sedan) with hatchback style cargo door. 
Station wagons are often a variation of an existing sedan/hatchback.
The smallest size category for cars is micro. 
They are extremely small and can only fit 1 person. 
They are extremely rare because the size is not practical.Examples : BMW Isetta, Corbin Sparrow, Heinkei Kabine.
They are considered small in most countries. 
In exchange for the short length, they often have tall height to maximize space.
In Japan, there is a size category called Kei cars. Kei cars are made to avoid size taxes and insurance cost. 
Examples : Smart fortwo, Suzuki Wagon R, Volkswagen Up, Ford Ka.
The most common size for cars in developing Asian countries, which is considered a decent size. 
Examples : Toyota Yaris/Vios, Honda Fit/Jazz/City, Volkswagen Polo, Ford Fiesta.
The most common size for cars in developed countries. 
They are spacious enough for groceries and family. 
Examples : Toyota Corolla, Honda Civic, Volkswagen Golf/Jetta, Ford Focus, Mercedes-Benz C-Class, BMW 3 Series.
Usually for family need, but some benefit from their engine size and cargo space. 
Examples : Toyota Camry, Honda Accord, Mercedes-Benz E-Class, BMW 5 Series.
Considered the longest size for those who need for space or simply want the premium of extra space. 
Examples : Toyota Crown, Honda Legend, Mercedes-Benz S-Class, BMW 7 Series.
A type of car that emphasize on performance. 
Body style is traditionally coupe or convertible, but a sedan or hatchback can also be a sportscar. 
The requirement to become a sportscar is very subjective. 
Usually the must exceed certain horsepower depending on the era.
Hatchbacks that have sportscar performance and handling.
Cars that have a stretched length, either to accommodate more passengers or to increase legroom.
Sedan/coupe/sportscar with pickup bed and sportscar performance.
Mid size sportscar that emphasize on power over handling for saving cost.
Like muscle car, but compact size. 
Sometimes pony cars are also classified as muscle cars.
 Cars that are either designed or modified to go racing ; often sacrifice comfort for the sake of performance and lighter weight.
 2 door sportscars that are designed to be comfortable for long trip with extra 2 seats at the back and a relatively spacious cargo space.
A modification style in which the car receive different engine (usually V8). 
Most hotrods are based on pre-war American cars. 
Some common features include visible engine from the outside and exposed tires.
Basically hot rod with rusty/old appearance.
 The body paint is often matte finish.
A modification style using full size American cars from the 60s-80s.
 Often feature complex details and low ride height. 
The signature feature is hydraulic suspension system, allowing independent suspensions to adjust the height, creating an impression that the car is dancing. 
Chrome grille and chrome wheels are very common as well.
Japanese-inspired modification that focus on performance and handling. 
They often come with big spoiler and big bumpers.
Japanese modification that reflects a gangster lifestyle, characterized by the extreme size of exhaust pipes and bumpers.
 A modification style with Californian beach theme. 
Volkswagen Beetle is usually the popular choice.
Japanese style modification that reflects modern luxury lifestyle. 
The cars are usually full size luxury sedans with large chrome wheels, large bumpers, low ride height, and wheel camber angle that are pop out.
Cars modified for drifting stunt.
Cars modified for rally motorsport, or simply for recreational driving on dirt.
Cars modified for drag race (straight line race).
Classic cars that are modified minimal enough to maintain the original looks of the car.
A car built from scratch by the owner, where the parts are individually selected from different manufacturers.
A motorsport that represents the pinnacle achievement of racing technologies. 
They consists of different classes, with F1 as the highest performed one.
A type of motorsport that takes part on speedway tracks (Tracks that are built for higher gears). 
Like its name, the wheels of the cars are enclosed by the body for protection against collision.
A race that takes place on rough terrains.
A race that tests the cars’ durability. 
It often consists of more-than-usual number of laps or time.
 A race that takes part on public roads, where the cars are based on road cars.
A motorsport that consists of drifting (Sliding the rear tires). 
It can either be a race or a stunt contest.
 A type of race that can only use production road cars.
Engine located at the front of/above front axles. 
Found in most cars.
Engine located between the front and rear axles, creating a more balanced weight distribution
Engine located on back of the rear axles. 
It used to be popular in economy cars, but not anymore. 
Rear engine layout’s center of gravity makes it very hard to control. 
Today, only Porsche 911 use this strange layout and it attracts certain fans.
Basically, a front engine layout with the engine located behind the front axles to provide more balanced center of gravity.
AUSTIN, Texas — Lewis Hamilton has a certain love affair with the rolling hills and scrub land in the heart of Texas.
It's easy to see why. The Mercedes driver has been almost invincible here, with five wins at the United States Grand Prix since 2012, including a season championship secured in 2015.
That makes it an almost perfect spot for more.
Win another race and another championship on Sunday and the Mercedes driver will sit all alone in second in Formula One history, with only a short step left to reach the top.
The British driver is on the cusp of securing a sixth career championship that would move him past Argentina's Juan Manuel Fangio, the "Godfather" of F1 drivers, and within one of the record seven won by Germany's?Michael Schumacher, who is still regarded as the sport's greatest champion.
Hamilton should have little trouble doing it.
All he needs to do is finish eighth or higher on Sunday.
It's been a good hunting ground for me, so very excited to go there, and who knows whether we can get the job done, Hamilton said.
There's not much reason to do that at this point.
Hamilton nearly closed out the championship last week with his?surprising win in Mexico City?, but teammate Valtteri Bottas' third-place finish pushed the title chase into another week.
Bottas is the only driver still mathematically in the championship, but just barely.
I don't mind, Hamilton said after not quite closing it out last week.
 "I love racing.
Hamilton didn't win the Texas race last year, finishing a third as Kimi Raikkonen took the checkered flag with Ferrari.
But he was in spectacular form last week in Mexico City, getting his 10th win of the season on a track that favored rivals Red Bull and Ferrari.
Hamilton is a de facto spokesman for growing Formula One in the U.S.
Still young and stylish at 34, an?environmental activist on social media?, Hamilton is a valuable face and force for promoting the series in America, which hasn't been as easy as F1 officials hoped when they returned to American soil with the Texas track and race in 2012.
Efforts to start other races haven't been so easy.
A dream race in Miami couldn't take hold in the downtown venue on Biscayne Bay the series wanted, and the current idea of racing around the parking lot of the stadium where the NFL's Miami Dolphins play has run into fierce opposition from locals.
The Texas race has been a stronghold and Hamilton still does his part.
 He was in New York City with an event in Times Square before coming to Austin.
Hamilton sees himself — the first and still only black driver in Formula One who comes from a middle class family — as a story that can be inspiring to an American audience.
I think my story and my family's story is something that a lot of people in different countries can relate to, Hamilton said.
Ferrari and Red Bull could still put up a fight Sunday at the Circuit of the Americas.
Ferrari has started on pole the last six races and the U.S.
Grand Prix winner has come from the front row every year since the Texas track opened.
The recent runs from pole have produced just three victories however, and none since Singapore on Sept.22
The team is partly to blame for not winning, through a series of blunders or being outmaneuvered by Mercedes.
In Mexico City, Ferrari put drivers Sebastian Vettel on different pit strategies and both surrendered the lead to change tires at different times.
We certainly want to do better than that, Ferrari team principal Mario Binotto said.
Verstappen will be looking to put a?bad race in Mexico?behind him.
 He was stripped of pole position in Mexico City because of a penalty for not slowing down while under a yellow flag in qualifying.
 He then punctured a tire on the fourth lap.
A car and driver that had the pace to win finished sixth.
Verstappen finished second in Texas last year and won his late-lap duel with Hamilton for the position.
A lot is possible at this track as there are so many good overtaking opportunities, which makes things interesting in the race, said Verstappen, who will be racing his 100th career grand prix at just age 22.
Hamilton, who is driving his 248th, may be wary of talk like that from Verstappen.
Their cars touched on the opening lap in Mexico City, and Hamilton said he's learned to give Verstappen a lot of room to race.
It's the smartest thing you can do, Hamilton said.
AUSTIN, TEXAS –?Closer racing and smaller budgets.
Formula One hopes it has found the formula to close the gap between teams fighting for championships and the cars bringing up the rear of the grid to create better and more compelling racing.
Series officials unveiled their long-awaited rules for 2021 and beyond Thursday at the U.S.
Grand Prix, with Formula One chief executive Chase Carey insisting the changes “respect the DNA” of the open-wheel series while improving its future,
“The goal has always been to improve the competition and action on the track,” Carey said.
“We will have cars that are better able to battle on the track.
Formula One has been dominated by Mercedes since the move to the hybrid engine in 2014 as the team has won six consecutive constructor’s championships.
Mercedes driver Lewis Hamilton can clinch the team’s sixth consecutive driver’s championship Sunday.
The only teams even challenging Mercedes on the podium have been Ferrari and Red Bull.
While technical regulations will create more standard parts and make the cars slightly heavier and slower, the biggest change is likely to be the new limit on what teams can spend.
While the budgets of the biggest teams can push close to $500 million, from 2021 and on teams will be limited to $175 million spent for on-track performance
Those figures won’t include expenses for things such as marketing, driver contracts and the three highest salaries on the team.
But teams that violate the racing budget cap could face penalties, including losing a championship.
Putting a spending cap on F1 teams has been one of the biggest sticking points for years.
But each year gets more expensive and the big teams finally came to the table and agreed something needed to be done, said Ross Brawn, F1’s managing director.
“Budgets have been escalating,” Brawn said.
“F1 is almost a victim of its own success … All of the big teams wanted cost control.
They needed it.
They needed saving from themselves.
F1 hopes that by closing the spending gaps, it will close the racing gap as well.
Previous efforts at spending limits have been “gentlemen’s agreements” that have been largely ignored, Brawn said.
“We’ve tried for these in the past.
There’s not many gentlemen in the paddock,” he said.
Expanding the season could strain those budgets.
Under the new rules, the F1 schedule could expand from its current 21 races to 25.
Vietnam has been added as a race in 2020 and F1 is currently making plans to add a Miami Grand Prix in 2021.
“We’ll add races only if we think it really adds to the sport,” Carey said.
Technical changes to the heavier car include tweaks to aerodynamics and a bigger wheel size, and a speed reduction of up to 3 seconds per lap is expected.
That would put them closer to the speeds of the 2016 season.
Formula One will keep the current hybrid engine system.
Engine manufacturers that sell to other teams, such as Mercedes and Ferrari, will have to provide their customers with power units equal to the ones they use in their own cars.
Racing Point driver Lance Stroll said he hoped the changes deliver the desired track results.
Racing Point sits seventh in the current team standings and regularly gets lapped by Mercedes, Ferrari and Red Bull as it fights to be the first in the middle.
“It’s great to fight for ‘best of the rest,’ ” Stroll said.
“But there’s no reward for that.
Closer racing is the priority.
The city’s?RapidRide H project?on Delridge Way SW is shaping up to be one of the most disappointing so-called “multi-modal” improvement projects in the city.
With a huge need for people to bike along this rare, relatively flat and continuous street spanning the neighborhood from the West Seattle Bridge to White Center, the project’s bike elements call for a mix of strange half solutions and downright non-solutions.
It would even remove an existing northbound bike lane that serves Chief Sealth High and Denny International Middle Schools.
But it doesn’t need to be this way.
By taking advantage of unused road space, the project could be better.
And by prioritizing safety over car parking, it could be great.
First, let’s look at the 30% design and talk about the problems that need solving.
Under the current plans, the city would build a fairly long bike lane that only goes south.
A bike lane that only goes one way isn’t really a thing.
It’s half a thing.
Trying to go north?
Good luck!
Planners are trying to create two very separate bike routes, one for people headed in each direction.
This is very unconventional, and not in a good way.
The plans also call for attempting to route people biking onto various side streets, often with very steep inclines between those side streets and Delridge if they connect at all.
Here’s an overview (note that minor streets are omitted, so there are blocks between these lines that are not shown):
It looks kind of alright on paper if you’ve never been on these streets.
But West Seattle is not flat like a map.
People did fight for complete bike lanes on Delridge, but complete bus lanes, turn lanes and car parking were prioritized.
But that doesn’t mean there isn’t still room for significant improvements that will make the investment go a lot further for people trying to get around on bike while also prioritizing buses.
The southbound route isn’t perfect, but it is at least workable.
I could see people actually using it and getting benefit from the improvements.
But we really need to talk about the northbound route.
The biggest problem is that it follows the existing Delridge-Highland Park Neighborhood Greenway several blocks to the east of Delridge, which is complete garbage.
It’s a joke of a bike facility.
There’s a very busy section with just sharrows, a section that crosses the same busy street two times within view of each other (though this project should fix that, at least), and there’s even a damn staircase in the middle of it:
Riding it feels like you are being led around by someone who is pretending to know their way but clearly doesn’t.
When you hit the staircase, you really start to wonder if you’re the butt of some kind of joke.
Did the design team really just give up like this?
Rather than combining a greenway with sections of bike lane on 16th Ave SW where needed, the route compromises usability at seemingly every opportunity.
The result is a real shame.
I’m sure parts are nice for some intraneighborhood trips if you live there, but it’s not a quality cross-town bike route.
But the shoddy quality is almost beside the point, because this route just is not a Delridge Way alternative by any stretch of the imagination.
If anything, it is a 16th Ave SW alternative, an entirely different arterial street.
It is at times six or even eight blocks out of the way round trip.
And the cliff face you have to climb is absurd at points.
There is even a mile-long section without a single connection between the greenway and Delridge.
So we gotta figure out something better.
The most obvious solution is bike lanes on Delridge, and for most of the road, this can be accomplished by removing on-street parking and/or reallocating space reserved for a center median.
Three parking studies and public outreach responses all showed that parking in the area is not hard to find.
This is a very simple solution by design standards.
Only politics and fear make it difficult.
Here’s a sample of the road design between SW Holden St and SW Roxbury St:
If the city prioritizes bike safety and connectivity over on-street parking, the solution here is clear.
Use the parking space on the east side of the street for a northbound bike lane.
Done!
But there are other section where removing on-street parking isn’t even necessary.
For a significant stretch of the street between SW Orchard St and at least SW Juneau St if not SW Alaska St, there is this funny little center buffer space that isn’t wide enough for a turn lane.
But it just so happens to be as wide as a bike lane…
I don’t know what the exact design should be, but I wanted to demonstrate that the existing design has both space to work with and needs that remain unmet.
We should be demanding more from our public improvements.
Even if the city only fixes the section that doesn’t remove parking (which, of course, I am not advocating for), they would be able to create a northbound bike lane that would serve Chief Sealth High and Denny International Middle Schools.
The current design would remove an existing northbound bike lane between SW Kenyon and Myrtle Streets, which is unacceptable.
We can’t go backwards on our bike network, especially when serving our city’s students.
Getting bike lanes as far north as Juneau would at least provide a connection to the 26th Ave SW neighborhood greenway, which has a decent connection to the West Seattle Bridge Trail.
So connecting Chief Sealth High to Juneau should be the minimum goal of this project.
The Delridge project is nearing the end of its design phase, but there’s still time to make changes.
The project timeline doesn’t have design finishing until early 2020, and the feedback summary (PDF) from public outreach on this concept showed clear dissatisfaction with their proposed bike solution.
So SDOT and city leaders should not accept this design as complete yet.
Instead, they should back up our city’s climate, biking, transit and walking goals by completing quality, usable design that will actually work for everyone.
The online registration deadline in King County is Monday (October 28).
So make sure all your friends and family get registered while it is still as easy as signing up online.
After that, you can register in-person at King County’s?Renton and downtown Seattle Election offices?up to and including election day.
If your registration is current, you should have already received your ballot in the mail.
If not, go to King County’s My Voter Information site and check that status of your registration and request a replacement.
The single most important vote on this ballot is?NO on I-976.
Tim Eyman’s deceptively simple initiative is sure to get a lot of votes because it basically asks people if they would like to pay less to register their cars.
It does not detail the massive cuts to vital and popular infrastructure maintenance and transit service in communities across the state that this initiative would force, work that voters and elected leaders have already planned and funded.
That’s the frustrating thing about these anti-tax initiatives: People are willing to fund improvements when asked about those improvements.
But when solely asked whether they want to pay a tax, of course a lot of people will say no.
This initiative only asks about the tax mechanism, not the vital work the tax is funding.
This is a long-winded way of saying, this one’s going to be close.
We need every single vote we can get.
So if you encounter someone who for whatever reason doesn’t care about the rest of the local elections on this ballot, tell them they at the very least need to vote NO on I-976.
Yet again, we have a race where neither candidate is great on biking and safe streets issues.
But Andrew Lewis is the better of the two, as you can see for yourself in this KCTS clip from a recent Seattle City Club debate:
I gotta be honest, I considered changing my planned Andrew Lewis endorsement to “no endorsement” after reading?his comments to Erica C. Barnett in a recent interview, which expand on his stance in the debate video.
In the interview, he suggests that the problem with the Missing Link is that there wasn’t enough process.
No really.
Then he says that he thinks bike lanes in general should go through more process and that it’s “fine” if they are meandering and indirect.
“I’m thinking of specific conversations that have been in the news in other districts, like the Missing Link of the Burke-Gilman Trail and 35th Ave. NE up in Wedgwood.
I think that part of the concern in those discussions was that there is broad-based support for connections, but the route that was picked by the city was controversial.
I would want to step back and have a little bit more of a process with all the stakeholders and then, at the end, have a recommendation.
And it might sometimes lead to a route where I, as a biker, might not find it to be the most convenient route.
But if it’s safe, I’ll use it and I’ll be thrilled, and if I have to dogleg over a block, go up, and then rejoin whatever the route is, I’m fine with that.
First of all, we’ve been arguing about the Missing Link for over two decades.
If that’s not enough process for you, then I just don’t know what to tell you.
Second, bike lanes were picked for 35th Ave NE after a significant amount of public outreach both for the paving project and the Bicycle Master Plan.
The bike lanes were the solution that met our city’s goals.
The route may have been “controversial” to some, but I think we’ve seen that abandoning the city’s goals by cutting those lanes was even more controversial.
The bike lanes were chosen both because it was the only direct and continuous bike route option and because the city needed to make the street safer for all users.
Protected bike lanes would have accomplished both of those goals.
The 39th Ave NE neighborhood greenway, which bike lane opponents kept pointing to as an alternative, does not connect to the north and is eight very steep blocks out of the way (four there, four back).
That is not an alternative, and it’s not “fine.
There was no amount of process that would have gotten the opponent group on board with the bike lanes.
The result of not putting bike lanes on 35th is that people have continued biking there because it is the only direct and continuous option, but now there are no safety enhancements to help them do so.
And speeding and dangerous passing is rampant because the road did not receive the safety benefits of having protected bike lanes, which reduce serious collisions for all road users.
This is what happens when leaders don’t stand up for our plans and goals.
But to zoom out from this one project, Seattle needs to make a lot of changes to its streets if we are going to connect our city’s bike network and achieve Vision Zero.
That requires our leaders to be committed to our safe streets, transit and climate change plans even when the work is difficult.
Especially when the work is difficult.
But his opponent Jim Pugel is worse.
For example, he spent his entire answer about bike lanes in that City Club debate complaining about how the arena construction project moved the 1st Ave N bike lane to the other side of the street so that they could stage their construction site on top of the old bike lane.
The problem?
People want to park cars there.
So in Pugel’s mind, people biking should be put at increased risk of injury or death during arena construction so that people driving can park more conveniently.
Congratulations, Jim Pugel, you’re worse than Andrew Lewis.
I hope Lewis can learn and change his position on essentially sabotaging the bike plan.
He bikes, and he talks about needing to build the bike network.
I hope he gets ready to bring the level of political leadership that’s going to take.
This one is a no-brainer.
District 4, my district, should elect Shaun Scott to the City Council.
There are elections where you vote for someone you believe in, and there are elections where you vote against someone you think would be harmful.
Both are true in this race.
Shaun Scott does not shy away from big ideas.
He is not afraid of making bold changes.
His ideas for Seattle’s Green New Deal are appropriately and necessarily big.
He’s not going to spit B.S. at you and pretend that adding some electric car chargers is going to solve climate change.
He’s going to talk about how to build a ton of affordable housing near improved transit service.
He’s going to talk about completing the Bicycle Master Plan even when it gets politically difficult.
And he’s going to talk about not just how our city’s carbon emissions are bad for the climate, but how the pollution from burning those fossil fuels disproportionately impacts the health of working people and communities of color.
But it’s not just his ideas that are exciting.
Scott has also inspired a movement.
He maxed out on the city’s democracy voucher system in record time, almost making a joke of the program’s limits.
He encouraged his campaign staff to unionize, which is extremely rare even in union-friendly Seattle.
And his staff and a ton of volunteers have been putting in huge amount of time tabling, knocking on doors and in many ways innovating what a political ground game looks like in Seattle’s still-new Council district system.
His campaign is rewriting Seattle’s election rules and creating a new path to power.
It would be a good thing for the city if they are successful because their model of organizing is truly grassroots and based on optimistic energy that, frankly, most other Council campaigns are lacking.
Scott makes me feel like our city really can do what it takes to become the affordable, equitable and sustainable city I believe it can be.
His opponent, Alex Pedersen, fought against light rail.
That’s right, he opposed the 2016 levy to fund a major expansion of Sound Transit light rail.
Worse, he still stands by his opposition to the levy.
And now he wants to represent this district while two of its three light rail stations begin service?
No way.
We need big changes to accompany these new stations with strong priority for walking, bike and bus access and more nearby affordable housing.
And Pedersen has shown that he’s not the person to do that job.
His transportation and climate plan includes subsidizing Uber rides and requiring car parking both on public streets and in new buildings (which dramatically increases the cost of those buildings and makes the new units more expensive).
Our top greenhouse gas emission source is from transportation, traffic is terrible because there are already too many people driving and people cannot afford homes in our city, yes his solution to these problems is more cars.
This is irresponsible.
Pedersen also fought against the 2015 Move Seattle Levy to fund vital street maintenance, street safety and transit efficiency work across our city, including work to improve light rail station access.
He thinks the new dangerous 35th Ave NE design was a good outcome despite that neighbors on bikes now feel terrified of their main commercial street.
He is the biggest threat to bike safety in any of the Council races.
Pedersen called to clarify that he did not oppose the $15 minimum wage effort as previously noted here.
I have checked my notes and can’t find where I read that, so I may have confused myself.
I regret the error and strive to do better.
Basically, if it was bold, Pedersen opposed it and will continue doing so if elected.
Sure, he has a B.S. excuse for all his unpopular stances of the past, but his stances tell you the real story, not his excuses.
A single City Council seat can only do so much to craft new laws.
You need a solid block of councilmembers to get big ideas through.
Scott will be part of that progressive block, and Pedersen won’t.
But while it is difficult for a single councilmember to create a new law, they can be very effective at muddying, delaying or even killing other people’s bold ideas.
That’s why Pedersen would be so dangerous on Council.
Seattle’s status quo is drowning working people, polluting the planet, killing people in traffic and displacing communities of color.
Scott wants to change the status quo.
Pedersen doesn’t.
So vote Scott.
Scott has also been endorsed by Washington Bikes, the Urbanist, Seattle Subway and the Transit Riders Union.
Nick and Lisa are traveling to Paris, where they are going to attend a special language school to study French. 
They have just arrived at the airport.
Unfortunately, nick is afraid of flying. 
 Let’s find the check-in counter.
We are flying Pan World Airlines. 
 I think it is at the end of the terminal.
Yes, I see the sign over there. Are you sure you do not want tot ho by boat? 
Come on, Nick! 
Here is the economy- class check-in counter. (to the clerk) 
Hi, we want to check in.
May I have your tickets and passports, please? 
Yes, here you are.
And we would like a window and an aisle seat, if possible. 
 Let’s see… 
OK. 
How many bags will you be checking in today? 
Um, four.
Tow each. 
 Please put them on the scale. 
Your bags are too heavy, I am afraid there will be an overweight-luggage charge of thirty dollars. 
Oh no!
I told you not to pack so many things. 
 I will pat the overweight charge. 
 Here are your boarding cards. 
You can board at gate nine at seventy-thirty. 
We could drive to Paris.
There are no weight limits for luggage when you drive.
Drive to Paris?
There are no roads from Liveville to Paris, Nick!
Having checking in, Nick and Lisa proceed to their gate. 
But first, they must go through security and immigration.
They have really beefed up security since September eleven.
This may take a while. 
 I don’t mind.
I hope they search everyone very thoroughly.
Please empty out your pockets and put all metal objects in this tray.
OK.
Step through the metal detector. 
The metal detector beeps. 
But I put everything in the tray, even my watch.
The metal detector beeps again.
I hate airports.
They frisked me and went through everything in my bags!
 It is your own fault. 
The cartoon character on your T-shirt has metal eyes.
That set off the metal detector. 
 It was a present from my aunt. And it is my lucky shirt. 
 Anyway, have your boarding card and passport out. 
We have to go through immigration now. 
 I hope they send us home. 
After passing through security and immigration, and after shopping in the duty-free store.
Nick and Lisa have finally arrived at their gate.
Flight PW-854 is now boarding.
All passengers on flight PW-854 should proceed to gate nine for boarding.
All passengers seated in rows thirty-six to forty-four may now board.
That's us. 
Let's go.
Nick is loaded down with things from he duty-free store.
Help me carry something.
Why did we buy so many things in the duty-free store?
May I see your boarding pass?
Thank you.
Nick and Lisa walk onto the plane.
Here we are—forty-three A and B.
I get the window seat!
You can have it. 
I don't want to look down.
Put this bag in the overhead compartment for me.
I'll put my purse under the seat in front of me.
These seats are so small! 
I feel like a sardine.
I'm going to recline my seat and put down my tray for reading.
Sir, please keep your seat in the upright position and your tray up until after takeoff.
 Can't we study French here in Liveville?
The plane has taken off and the pilot has turned off the seat belt sign. 
This is your captain speaking, we have reached cruising altitude,' and I have turned off the seat belt sign.
Still, for your safety, please keep your seat belt fastened when you are in your seat.
Oh, look, Nick.
Our seats have personal video screens.
 And here it shows where we are over the ocean, and the speed, and the altitude…
I don't want to know! (To the flight attendant)
Excuse me.
 May I have a pillow and a blanket?
Let's see what the in-flight entertainment is. 
 Oh, they have three movies.
I'm going to put on my headset.
Would you like something to drink?
 Yes, I would like a glass of orange juice, and he would like a glass of milk.
Oh, here is the dinner cart. 
 I love airplane food. 
Oooohhhh!
Would you like the spicy chicken or the fried beef?
I'll have the chicken, please. 
He'd like . . . don't think my friend is hungry.
Oooohhhh! 
Why is the plane bouncing so much?
It's just a little turbulence, Nick. 
Oh, look!
We're way above the clouds now.
Nick: O000hhh! 
Nick faints.
Nick and Lisa are traveling to Paris, to study French and do some sightseeing.
They are now on the airplane.  
Lisa loves flying, but Nick is afraid.
We'll be landing soon, Nick.
I see a few items I want in this duty-free catalog.
But you already bought duty-free stuff before we took off.
Shopping on the airplane makes fun. (To the flight attendant)
Excuse me, I want to buy some duty-tree items.
All right. 
 I can get them for you now.
 What would you like?
 I'd like to get a bottle of Eau de Live Number five perfume, and this box of chocolate.
 I'm sorry. 
That chocolate is already sold out.
 Oh, well, I'll just buy the perfume, then. 
Can I use U.S. dollars?
 Yes, that will be fifty dollars, please.
 I'll bring you the perfume in a minute.
(Over the loudspeaker) This is your captain speaking. 
We will be landing shortly. 
Please make sure that your seatback and tray table are in the upright and locked position.
A few minutes later; the plane lands.
Welcome to Charles de Gaulle International Airport. 
The weather today in Paris is sunny and a little bit windy.
Oh, it is wonderful to be in Paris again. 
How romantic! 
Oh, yes! It is wonderful to be here—on solid' ground again. 
How ... safe.
Nick and Lisa’s plane has just landed.
I am so happy to be back on the ground again.
Oh, Nick. 
According to' statistics, you are more likely to get in an accident on the ground than in a plane.
 I can't reach my bag in this overhead compartment …
Lisa's bag falls from the overhead compartment unto Nick's foot.
Ouch!
See, I told you.
Nick and Lisa follow the crowd out of the plane.
Here's the immigration area. 
Get your passport out.
Welcome to Paris. 
May I see your passport?
Here you are.
What is the purpose of your visit, and how long will you be staying?
Four weeks. 
We're taking a French course.
 And doing some sightseeing, of course. 
Oh, and shopping, too!
Oh no.
 I'm going to have to carry even more bags home.
 If we're lucky, your suitcase won't arrive.
 Then you will have an extra hand.
Having gone through immigration, Nick and Lisa got to the baggage-claim area to get their check-through bags. 
The security is tight here. 
The luggage-collection area is over there. 
And the screen says the bags from our flight will come out on carousel number twelve. 
You go and look for the bags.
 I will get a cart. 
Oh, look, Nick, there is my suitcase. 
Get it. Careful! 
It is very heavy. 
Got it!  
Help!
(Nick falls onto the luggage carousel and runs in place, trying to get off.
Help. 
Quit clowning around, Nick. 
It figures! 
My suitcase is the first one out and yours will be the last one out. 
Where is my suitcase?
I want to report a lost bag.
 My name is Nick Gregory.
Yea, sir. Let me see… your suitcase is now in Timbuktu. 
Please fill out this form. 
Timbuktu? 
Oh, no. 
Nick’s suitcase was sent to the wrong airport, so they collect their other bags and get in line in the customs area.
 I filled out our customs-declaration forms on the plane-while you are sleeping. 
 I have our passports here. Oh, it is our turn. 
Please put your bags on the counter.
 Here you are.
 And here are our customs-declaration forms. 
May I see your passports, please? 
Where are you coming from? 
LiveVille!
 Here you go, sir.
Please open this bag.
 Do you have any plants or meat products? 
Any fruits ot vegetables? 
No, we don’t. 
If we did, it would be in Timbuktu! 
Sorry, my suitcase was put on the wrong plane.
 I hate traveling. 
 Oh, I am sorry to hear that. OK, you can go.
Way to go. 
You scared him with all of your complaining, so he let us pass through quickly. 
Now, we can take an airport shuttle into the city, or we can take a taxi. 
You have too many nags. We need a taxi. 
Oh, look. 
A store, I want to go in and look around!
Oh, no
Nick and Lisa have gone to a bank to change money. 
Banks are usually the best place to change money. 
They have the best rates and charge the lowest commissions. 
And banks in Paris have the best customer service. 
Nick sees a beautiful French teller.
 Lisa, you wait here.
 I will take care of changing the money. 
Nick walks to the bank’s counter.
Bonjour.
Bonjour, monsieur.
 May I help you? 
Oui. 
We, I mean I, would like to change some money. 
What is the exchange rate? 
The exchange rates for today are displayed on the sign over there. 
Wow!
 That's a good rate.
 I would like to change five hundred U.S. Dollars.
 I have my traveler's checks right here. 
OK. Please sign here. How would you like that? 
 Nick, hurry up! I want to go shopping. 
Quiet, Lisa! 
What denominations do the bills come in? 
 Five hundred, two hundred, one hundred, and then a fifty, two twenties, and a ten. 
Lisa is angry and she walks up to the counter.
Here you are.
 Will there be anything else today? 
Well, mademoiselle, how about if you show me around Paris…
Lisa grabs the money out if Nick’s hands.
 Nick Gregory!
You can stay there and change money in the bank.
 I will go out and spend the money in the stores! 
Lisa walks quickly out of the bank.
No! 
Wait! 
Will all passengers for flight ABC four thirty-one please proceed to gate eleven for boarding at this time.
Flight ABC four thirty-one to Chicago has been canceled. 
Passengers scheduled to fly on flight ABC four thirty-one should check in at the gate for instructions. 
Will the last five passengers for flight ABC four thirty-one please proceed immediately to gate elven for boarding. 
What time does the flight board?
What is out gate?
How do I get to the gate?
Do you know how to get to the gate? 
Would you like a beverage before your meal? 
Please put your seat back in the upright position. 
What would you like for your dinner, chicken or beef? 
Would you like coffee or tea with your dinner? 
May I take your tray?
This is your captain speaking. 
We ask that all passengers return to their seats at this time and fasten their seat belts.
 We are experiencing a little turbulence, but it is not serious and we should be getting through it soon. 
Excuse me, I am not feeling well. 
Do you have any aspirin? 
I have a headache. 
My stomach is upset.
 I think I am going to vomit. 
My ears are all blocked up. 
May I see your boarding pass, please? 
Only ticketed passengers can purchase duty-free items. 
I will need to see your passport and boarding pass, please.  
The exchange rates for foreign currencies are listed here. 
How many bottles of brandy can I buy? 
How many cartons of cigarettes can I buy? 
Do you accept credit cards? 
Is there an extra charge for using a credit card? 
What is the exchange rate if I use American dollars?
Excuse me, when can we but duty-free items? 
How do I buy duty-free items? 
I want to buy this perfume. 
I ordered a bottle of perfume, but it has not arrived at. 
Just fill out this form, and we will deliver the items to you. 
I am sorry. 
We don’t have any left in stock. 
We will bring it to you right away. 
All passengers are required to disembark and wait in the airport during this time. 
Please bring all of your bags with you. 
How long of a layover do we have?
Do we have to pick up our check-in bags? 
Excuse me, I am catching a connecting flight to Taipei. Where do I go? 
Where do I go to catch my connecting flight? 
Hi, I am transferring to flight ABC three-one-two to Taipei. 
OK, let me see your passport and ticket, please
Where do we go to get our bags? 
Where is the baggage-claim area? 
Which carousel is for my flight?
Where can I get a luggage cart?
Where is the lost-luggage counter? 
Excuse me, my bag did not come out.  
I would like to report a lost bag. 
I think my luggage has been lost.
Where can I catch a bus? 
Which bus goes to the train station? 
How much is the fare? 
Where do we catch the airport shuttle?  
Is this the shuttle into town? 
Is there a taxi stand nearby? 
How many people can you take? 
Can you take me to the Capital Hotel, please? 
Can you open the trunk for me, please? 
How much do you charge for putting luggage in the trunk?
What are your rates? 
I would like to rent a car for three-days. 
What is the rate per day? 
Does the price include insurance?  
Do I have to fill up the gas when return the car? 
Do I have to pay a deposit?
Nick and Lisa are on a tour of Paris, and their tour bus has stopped near the arch of triumph.
Nick, look. 
 I have seen it in so many movies, it is even more impressive in real life.
The arch of triumph was commissioned by napoleon in 1806, to commemorate his victories.
How big is it?
 It is fifty meters high and forty-five meters wide. 
Lisa, my guidebook says the tomb of the unknown solider is inside.
 Let’s walk over and look. 
 Nick, we can’t leave the tour group.
My guidebook says there is also a gift shop inside. 
 Um, then let’s go. But we would better not be gone for too long. 
It is so big.
 My guidebook says the view from the roof is awesome. 
 Nick, look. 
Everyone is getting in the tour bus.
 They are leaving. 
Oh, no.  
Run.
Nick and Lisa are now at the Eiffel Tower.
The Eiffel Tower! It's so romantic. 
 I will bet they have a great gift shop.
The Eiffel Tower is three hundred meters tall. 
When it was completed in 1889, it was the world's tallest structure.
 At night, special lights light up the tower's paint—forty tons of it.
People say this is the world's most romantic sight! 
What do you think, Nick?
 Fantastic! My guidebook says there are fifteen thousand iron pieces and two point five million rivets.
Rivets?! 
Metal pieces?! 
You're about as romantic as a robot!
The tower took just over two years and two months to complete.
 Now, we'll go and actually visit.
 I'm so thrilled! 
Nick, won't it be romantic to ride up the glass elevators together and see the view from the top?
 No way! 
When we get home, I want to tell people I made it up the one thousand six hundred steps to the top.
 Huh! 
So much for romance!
Nick and Lisa are at the Museum d'Orsay, Paris's famous museum for impressionist art.
We'll begin here, viewing these impressionist masterpieces.
Then we'll also see works by Monet and others.
 What a deep painting this one is! 
When I look at it, I see a troubled world . . .and lots of emotion. 
What do you see, Nick?
 I see a small dog and a purple monkey. 
 You are so shallow, Nick!
 This work is by the impressionist painter John Patricks.
 The colors are so vivid, the images so, so . . .
Painted in 1892, it is entitled' "The Flower."
 It is believed he was expressing his love for his cat.
Look! 
The brush strokes just jump out at you.
Hmm .
 I wonder what it feels like—
Nick, no! 
Don't touch it! 
Rtrrrimminnnnnnggggg!
Whoops!
 Oh no!
Lisa and Nick are on a private nighttime boat tour on the River Seine.
I'm so glad we took a private tour. 
It's so romantic.
 Look at all the lights.
Yeah! 
This is great for nighttime photography.
Hey, there's the Eiffel Tower.
 It is just beautiful at night.
 It is … There is so much history along this river.
 It is the heart of Paris.
 I know! 
Check out these old bridges, and the architecture.
 Roman armies, wars, the French Revolution—this river has seen so much.
 I wonder what relics' are floating around under there.
 It's probably not very clean.
 Look, there's something floating there! 
Hold my hand while I leans to get it.
Nick, no!
 Aaaahhh!
 Nick falls into the water.
 I think our perfect vacation is in deep water.
Can I  book a city tour here? 
Which tour best covers the major attractions? 
Where does the tour go? 
How long does the tour spend at each stop? 
Will there be time to buy souvenirs? 
Are there lots of good spots to take pictures? 
Does the tour include lunch? 
How much does it cost? 
Do you have a brochure( in Chinese)?
We  have half-day and full -day tours. 
The tour goes to sll the important sights. 
Lunch is included. 
Here's a brochure with pictures and details. 
Tours depart at eight-thirty each morning. 
How much is this T-shirt?
That's expensive. 
Can you go any lower on the price?
Do you have this in larger/　smaller size?
Do you have this in another color?
I am booking for something woth a local flavor. 
Do you take credit cards?
Everything in the store is ten percent off day. 
That's our most popular souvenir. 
I will see if we have any another sizes/ colors in the back. 
Sorry, that's the final price. 
There's  no bargaining. 
If you buy five of them, then I can give you a twenty percent discount. 
I would like to buy some stamps. 
What kind of stamps would you like?
Any kind is fine. 
Do you have any limited editiion stamps?
We have several different limited edition stamps. 
Do you have any if the Harry Potter stamps left? 
Sorry, we are all aold out og those. 
Excuse me, do you sell postcards of the local attractions here? 
Yes, we have a collector's set of ten different postcards. 
How mich will this cost to mail? 
We will have to weight it first. 
I want to send this by air mail. 
Do you want to send this first class or express?
Excuse me, can you take a picture for me?
I want a portrait/ landscape. 
I would like the whole tower in the backgroung. 
Just push this buttin. 
Another one, please. 
Get in the picturer with me. 
Give me your e-mails address, and then I will e-mail you the picture. 
How do I use the canera? 
Which buttin should I push?
Say cheese. 
Move closer together.
Move a little to the/ your right/ left. 
I have lost my traveler's checks. 
Do you have the receipts?
Yes. 
Is there a bank or travel office nearby where I can get thenm replaced? 
Let me call a few banks for you to find out. 
I have lost my wallet. 
OK, I will help you file a report with the price. 
What was in your wallet? 
It had my credit cards and six hundred U.S. dollars in cash. 
Is there anything I can do? 
Yes. 
Get on the phone and cancel your credit crads. 
My friend is sick. 
Is there a hospital nearby? 
Yes, there is. 
Does the hospital have an emergency room? 
Yes, it does. 
Is your friend well enough to go in a taxi?
Lisa and her sister, Mary, have just come to Hula-Hula Island for a vacation. 
Here, they arrive at their hotel.
 Wow! 
I've never stayed in a place this fancy' before!
Welcome to the Hula-Hula Hotel. 
How can I help you?
We'd like to check in. 
Our names are Lisa and Mary Lee. 
We have a reservation or a double room.
 Let's see . . . 
Yes. 
We have a suite for you on the third floor, room three-two-one, for five nights.
 Great! 
Oh, and my sister's luggage was lost.
 Please tell us if it's delivered to the hotel.
Of course.
 I'll need your passport, and please sign this guest card.
OK. 
Here you are. 
Oh, and what is the checkout time?
Eleven a.m. 
And if you need any assistance,' please see our concierge or call the front desk.
 Here are your keys.
Mary and Lisa have arrived in their hotel room. 
Unfortunately, the airline lost Lisa's luggage.
 Ah . . .
 We're finally in our hotel room. 
Cable TV, air conditioning, king-size beds, a refrigerator. . . 
This suite is beautiful!
Yeah, but I can't stop thinking about my bags. 
The airline lost all of my luggage!
Don't worry, Lisa. 
We can share mine.
 I packed well—I think.
OK. 
What did you pack in your suitcase? 
Let's open it up and see what you brought.
I have a camera and film, traveler's checks, toiletries,' some guidebooks …
Those are some good travel items.
 But,Mary. .. 
Didn't you pack any clothes?
 Oh, this is going to be a terrible vacation. 
What can we do on vacation with no extra clothes?
That's easy . . . Shop!
Lisa and Mary are asking the desk clerk about the hotel facilities.
Hello. 
What can I do for you?
We just arrived at the hotel. 
Can you tell us what restaurants you have?
The Hula-Hula Restaurant is open now. 
There's also a complimentary' breakfast buffet' each morning.
Great! 
Can we get a wake-up call at eight tomorrow?
No problem. 
What's your room number?
We're in room three-two-one.
OK. 
Be sure to try our gym' on the second floor. 
There is also a business lounge" on the third floor, with computers, copiers, and fax machines.
How about a nice place to relax here?
The beach is just down the street. And out in back, we have a swimming pool, jacuzzi, and sauna.
Great. 
Now we have an excuse to shop-to buy swimming suits. 
Some things are going wrong in Lisa and Mary's hotel room, so they call the front desk.
This is the front desk. How can I help you?
 We're having some problems in room three-two-one. 
Can you send someone up right away?
Certainly. 
What seems to be the problem?
Well, my sister some juice on the bed sheets
Oh, dear! 
We'll send a maid up with fresh linen' as soon as possible.
Well, my sister tried to clean the sheets, but the water wouldn't stop. 
Now there's water everywhere…
Oh, no! 
We'll send the janitor' and the plumber,' too!
And then my sister slipped on the wet tile' and hurt her toe.
Oh, we'll also send a doctor.
 Lisa screams. 
What's the matter?
And send an electrician, as well. 
The lights just went out.
Hello. 
What kind of information do you have here? 
We have a number facilities: a business room, laundry facilities, free e-mail…
We are here on vacation. 
We won't be needing any of those services.  
Especially the laundry service. 
What tours are available? 
If you are here for a holiday, I suggest taking a guided walking tour. 
Here are some brochures. 
Great! 
Do you have any maps of the island? 
Of couse. 
Here is one with all the major landmarks labeled. 
I can help arrange a car rental if you would like. 
No thanks. 
But can you help us book tiurs or make restaurant reservations? 
Of course. 
Just look at the brochures and let me know what tour you would be interested in. 
How about a shopping tour? 
That's all you think about!
Hello. 
What can I do for you?
We would like to check out of our room. 
Here are the keys. 
It's room number three-two-one. 
Did you take anything from the refrigerator? 
Yes, we had two colas. 
We also ordered room service once. 
OK. 
Your five-night total comes to three hundred and ten dollars. 
Are you paying by cash or credit card?
Credit card. 
Here you are. 
Oh, and can you call an airport taxi forus? 
I will do that right awat. 
Please sign on the dotted line. 
You bought so much, we can barely carry it all. 
I am glad they list my suitcase. 
Oh, and I almost forgot. 
Mr. Lee, someone dropped this off for you morning. 
What? 
Hey, that's my luggage. 
How many nights will you be staying? 
What kind of room would you like? 
We will be staying for three nights. 
We would like a double room with a queen-size bed. 
I have a reservation.
My name is Carl Smith. 
Let me see…
I am afraid we canceled the reservation because we never received the deposit.  
Oh no!
Do you have any vacancies? 
I am afraid we don't have amy single rooms available. 
Is that for a single room? 
Oh no!
Yes, please. 
All guests receive a free breakfast.
 Would you like the continenntal breakfast or an American breakfast?
What about the breakfast buffet over there? 
That is an all-you-can-eat buffet. 
It is six dollars per person. 
Excuse me, can I order some iced tea by the pool? 
Certainly, I will place the order for you. 
Hi, I was wondering if you could help me. 
I need to send out some faxes and make some overseas calls. 
Sure. 
We can send the faxes for you in our business center, and you can make your calls there or in the privacy of your room. 
Thanks. 
How about Internet access?
Is there a place where I can hook up my notebook? 
There is Internet access in every room or you can use the business center. 
How late is the gym open? 
It is open until ten o'clock. 
What kinds of massage do you have?
We have traditional massage, herbal massage, foot massage and Shiatsu massage. 
I will have a Shiatsu massage. 
Hi, I would like to get a wake-up call tomorrow morning. 
Sure. 
What time will that be for? 
Six-thirty a.m., plwase. 
I would like to get a safe-deposit box. 
Each room has a personal safe in the closet. 
Did you receive any calls while I was out? 
May I have your name and room number?
Can you recommend a good show? 
I can get tickets for you to the musical Mice. 
Do you know of any good restaurants close by?
There is an excellent French restaurant with a beautiful view. 
I would like to send the letters by airmails and the package by surace mail.  
Please fill out this form. 
How can I get to the history museum from here? 
Turn right onto West Street, and you will see the museum. 
Can you call a cab for me? 
Iwill call one right away. 
There seems to be a problem with my bill. 
Yes. 
May I see?
There are charges here for beverages from the refrigerator, but I did not drink anything. 
Can you wait just a moment?
I will check for you. 
There are charges here for three movies, but I did not order any movies. 
Let me see…
Oh, I apologize. 
We have fiven you the wrong bill. 
I am very sorry. 
Well, accidents happen. 
Nick is treating Lisa to dinner. 
Nick wants to impress her, but he is very cheap. 
What do you feel like eating? 
Hmm…
I want to eat something really good. 
There is a fast-food restaurant over there. 
We could get a burger. 
Fast food? 
A burger?!
Are you kidding?
It's my birthday. 
I want ti eat something special, like French food. 
French food?
That's too expensive- I mean, difficult to order. 
Well, hoe about steak? 
The Ranch Steak House is right over there. 
I've never been to an American steak house!
Ranch Steak House?
You mean the expensive five-star restaurant that serves the best Steak in town. 
Oh!
You have been there? 
Then you will know what ot order? 
All I know is that it will be a tall order for me to pay the bill. 
Nick and Lisa enter the restaurant and are greeted by the hostess. 
Nick is worried because the restaurant is expensive. 
Hello!
Welcome to Ranch Steak House. 
We would like a table for two, please. 
All right. 
Would you prefer smoking or nonsmoking?
Nonsmoking, please. 　
And we would like a table by the window if possible. 
OK. 
Let me see…
Yes, we do have a table available right now. 
Follow me, please. 
Really?
We can get a table? !
Normally, you need a reservation to get a table here. 
We're really lucky.
Yeah! 
This restaurant looks really busy. 
Here is your table. 
And here are your menus. 
Thank you.
Wow!
Our table is so beautiful. 
This restaurant is really nice. 
Yeah, maybe it is too nice. 
There aren't any prices on the menus!
Nick and Lisa have already been seated at their table. 
The waitress is taking their orders. 
Nick hopes it will be cheap. 
Can I bring you something to drink?
I will have a glass of orange juice, please. 
I will just have water, thankk you…
What are the soecials today?
Today, we have baked fish with rice, and barbecued steak with potatoes. 
We would like one steak special- to share. 
And we would like the steak well-done. 
What? 
That won't be enough for the both of us. 
Well, the portions here are big. 
You don't want to get too full. 
I don’t want to be hungry, either. 
I don’t want you to eat too much-that's all. 
I will be fine. 
Miss, he will have the steak special, and I will have the fish special, please. 
All right. 
I will be back with your drinks in a minute. 
The waitress brings Nick and Lisa their orders. 
Here you go. 
Is there anything else I can get for you? 
Uh…
I am sorry, but I didn't order this. 
I ordered the steak. 
This is the steak. 
But therer is sauce all over it!
I didn't order it like this. 
This is how our chef cooks steak. 
It's our most popular dish. 
But this steak is … undercooked. 
I can see… blood. 
Well, didn't you order your steak rare? 
No, I order it well-done. 
I can't eat this. 
I am sorry. 
I'll take it back to the kitchen and bring you another one. 
I'm sorry about the mistake. 
That's OK.
And could you ask the chef not to put sauce on it, please?
Sure. 
I'll be right back. 
Nick and Lisa have finished their meal. 
What a delicious meal. 
I'm so full. 
I hope you're not too full, because here comes the waitress with a birthday cake. 
Happy birthday, Lisa. 
Now I see why you didn't want me to eat too much. 
I always save a little room for dessert. 
Great. 
You can take the rest of your fish home in a doggie bag. 
Miss, can you wrap this for her, please? 
Certainly. 
And could we also have the bill, please. 
Of course. 
Here you go. 
Thanks. 
Oh, well, money is no object when it comes to birthdays. 
I agree- birthdays should be special. 
I am glad you said that. 
Have I mentioned that it's my birthday next week? 
My fork is dirty. 
I am very sorry. 
This steak is undercooked. 
I apologize, sir. 
I will take it back to the kitchen right away. 
My steak is too tough, I think it was over-cooked. 
Sorry about that. 
I will take it back and get you another one. 
Excuse me, but this soup is too salty. 
I am very sorry about that. 
I will have the cooked make a fresh batch. 
I am sorry, I spilled my water all over the table. 
No problem. 
I will clean up the table and get you another glass of water. 
Welcome to Lucky Hamburger. 
What can I get for you today?
I need a chicken sandwich with extra lettuce but no mayonnaise. 
I would like to order a hot dog with no mustard. 
I would like to have a chessburger with pickles and ketchup. 
Nick is meeting Lisa to go to lunch at a fancy restaurant. 
Unfortunately, they are having trouble just meeting. 
Nick calls Lisa's cellphone. 
Lisa, where are you ? 
I have been waiting for you here at the subway station. 
I can't find it.
I am lost. 
Oh no!
Where are you?
I am in front of a small supermarket. 
Hmm… is there a park next to the supermarket … and a school across the street. 
Yes, and there is a convince store kitty-coner from here. 
OK.
Just walk north for about five minutes and you will see a department store on the right. 
And the subway station is next to the department? 
Yes. 
It is between te department store and a large bank. 
And please hurry. 
Of you hadn't given me such bad direction, I would be there already. 
It's about time!
I've been waiting all day!
Oh, relax!
Now, we'd better ask someone where this restaurant is.
I know it’s on one of the subway lines.
Let’s look for a map.
Oh, Nick!
You’re always afraid to ask for directions!
Lisa talks to a man and a woman on the street.
Excuse me, can you tell us ow to get to the Royal Lion Steak House?
Oh, yeah, let’s see… that’s in northern Liveville…
No! 
It’s actually north of Liveville.
I don’t think so.
It’s in the shopping district.
Nonsense!
It’s way out in the boondocks.
Now you can see why I don’t like asking for directions!
Maybe we should buy a map!
I think we have to go east on the Green Line, and that means we need to get on the train on platform three.
We still need to ask for directions.
Here’s our train!
We can ask for directions after we get on.
Excuse me.
Can you tell us how to get to the Royal Line Steak House?
Sure, dear.
Take the Green Line west to First station and change trains.
Get on Blue Line and ride to Park Street Station.
So we get off at the Park Street Station?
Yes.
The restaurant is about a fifteen-minute walk from there.
Excellent.
Thank you.
See.
That was easy.
Yeah, expect that she told us to get west on the Green Line, and we’re going east.
I don’t believe it.
We’re lost again!
I’m asking for directions.
To a man and a woman on the street.
Excuse me, can you tell us how to get to the Royal Line Steak House?
I think so, um…walk west for two blocks and then turn right.
That’s River Road.
Wait.
I’m writing down.
OK.
Then go up River Road to State Street, and turn left on State.
No, you go down River Road for two blocks to King Street and then turn left.
No, that’s the fast way.
I suggest taking the scenic route. Walk along State Street until you get to a large park and turn right.
No!
Turn left.
Nick, I think I know the best way to find a place-
Me, too!
Take a taxi.
Taxi!
It’s so hot!
Do you want to go to the beach?
We can go swimming to cool off.
No, there’s nothing to do there.
Well, uh, I … I don’t really like swimming.
It’s kind of boring.
Well, there are other things to do at the beach.
We can go jet-skiing, have a barbecue, or …go parasailing.
Parasailing? 
No.
I’m not crazy about flying, either.
Well, there’s a beautiful coral reef at one end of the beach.
We could go snorkeling.
Snorkeling?!
But we might see a big fish!
I hope we see lots of fish if we go snorkeling. 
That’s the whole point!
But what about sharks?
Didn’t you ever see the movie Jaws?
Are you afraid of fish?
Me afraid of fish?!
No!
Come on, let’s go!
My grandfather taught me how to fish.
This is the hook and these are the weights.
They make the hook sink.
Yep.
Now, the first thing we do is bait the hook.
Oh, that’s disgusting!
I don’t want to watch.
No, no.
We’re going to use cheese.
It’s a secret my grandfather taught me.
Here.
Show me how to cast.
This is a closed reel.
It’s easy.
You just hold the rod here, push this button down with your thumb, and release it at the end of your cast — like this!
That’s easy.
Now it’s my turn.
When you feel a bite, jerk the pole to hook the fish.
When feel a bite, jerk the pole to hook the fish.
Whoever catches the fewest fish cleans them all!
Hey, I’ve got a bite!
Oh no!
Do you have our beach towels?
Uh, yeah.
I’ve got them in this bag.
Here you go.
Great.
Let’s put them down here.
What else do you have in that bag?
It’s so full.
Uh, just a couple of things, like my swimsuit, my swimming cap—
Swimming cap?
You don’t need a swimming cap at the beach.
Oh.
Well, I also brought some waterproof sunscreen so I don’t get sunburned.
Smart thinking!
Well, put on some sunscreen and let’s start tanning.
Tanning?
No way!
We’ll roast in this hot sun!
I thought you liked barbecue.
Not when I’m the main course.
Let’s go for a walk on the beach.
Ok.
Maybe we can find some pretty shells or rocks to bring home.
Yeah.
Hey, here’s a nice shell.
I’ll put it in my pocket.
Oh, look!
A crab!
It buried itself in the sand.
Hey, look, a starfish!
And it’s still alive.
Uh, Lisa!
Ah!
Ouch!
There’s something in my picket!
It’s biting me!
What?!
What is it?
Take it out!
It’s the shell!
It’s alive!
Now it’s biting my hand!
That’s the sell of a hermit crab!
It’s not biting you; it’s pinching you with its claws!
I don’t know what’s worse, getting pinched by a crab or seeing a big fish!
I love swimming!
It’s great fun and exercise.
Can you teach me how to swim?
Sure. 
Show me what you know how to do first.
Ok.
This is the only way I know how to swim.
That’s not bad, but, uh, that’s how my grandmother swims.
It’s called the dog paddle.
Oh, how embarrassing!
This is why I never swim in public.
Here, watch me.
This stroke is called the front crawl.
Cool!
What you are doing now called treading water.
Really?
I thought this was called drowning!
Help!
I love swimming!
It’s great fun and exercise.
Can you teach me how to swim?
Sure. 
Show me what you know how to do first.
Ok.
This is the only way I know how to swim.
That’s not bad, but, uh, that’s how my grandmother swims.
It’s called the dog paddle.
Oh, how embarrassing!
This is why I never swim in public.
Here, watch me.
This stroke is called the front crawl.
Cool!
What you are doing now called treading water.
Really?
I thought this was called drowning!
Help!
The great thing about beach volleyball is you can play with only two people.
That’s good.
I’d be embarrassed to play with a team.
Now remember, you can hit the ball with open hands, like this, or with a closed fist, like this, or with your hands together, like this.
I think I understand.
Go ahead and serve.
I’m ready.
All right. Here goes…
Got it!
Nick!
You can’t catch the ball!
You’re supposed to hit it.
That’s one point for me.
We’re keeping score?
Yes, and the loser buys lunch.
That’s the only way I will keep you serious about the game.
I don’t want to play then.
Then I’ll play with that handsome weight lifter over there.
Ok, ok!
I’ll play.
Serve!
Oh, how cute!
You’re building a sand castle!
This is more than a sand castle!
This is a work of art!
Do you want to help me?
No, but I’d like to buy you in sand.
Maybe later.
Do you think I should build a wall around it?
No.
But you should build a parking lot.
Castles don’t have parking lots!
Haven’t you ever built a sand castle before?
I know how.
What I was trying to say is that I don’t really like to build sand castle.
I like to destroy them, like this!
No!
I don’t think I want to wear a wet suit and carry a tank.
We’re not going scuba diving, we’re going snorkeling!
Oh.
Well, what do we need?
We’ll each need a mask, a snorkel, and some flippers.
A snorkel?
You mean this thing?
How do you use this?
You put this end in your mouth when you’re in the water, and this end sticks out of the water.
You breathe through it.
And why do we need flippers?
With flippers, we can swim faster.
Speed is good.
Especially if we see a …
Don’t worry!
We won’t see any sharks.
Are you sure?
Trust me.
Even if we did see one, it wouldn’t want to eat you.
You’re too thin!
Look at how well I got this barbecue going.
Yeah. But why did you use both charcoal and wood?
To give the food a special flavor.
A smoked flavor.
Oh.
Should we put more pork on the grill?
No, there’s already a lot.
There’s also chicken and beef.
We should turn beef over.
The fire is too strong.
It looks like it’s getting burned.
Girls always think boys can’t cook.
Now let me do the cooking, please.
Ouch!
Don’t slap my shoulder.
My sunburn…
Ouch!
Why is everything at the beach either scary or painful?
That’s what males coming to the beach fun, Nick.
Ed and Amy are planning a trip to America.
I have three weeks of vacation saved up. Let's take a second honeymoon. 
Really? 
How about we go to the States? 
I'd like to see Disneyland and Universal Studios.
Why not?
How about a couple4 of days in Las Vegas, too?
We've got to go to the Grand Canyon, too.
And we can't miss New York City.
 I'd love to take in a Broad way play.
Isn't New York on the other side of the country?
 Who cares? 
It's just a five-hour plane ride from the west coast. 
Well, when you put it that way, what can I say but yes.
Amy is calling a travel agent to purchaser airline tickets.
Good morning. 
Fun times travel agency. 
May I help you? 
Yes.
 I would like to book two tickets to Los Angeles.
 I would also like to go to New York, Las Vegas….. hmm, let’s me see… 
Do you have your itinerary all worked out? 
I guess my husband and I haven’t really given it too much thought, but we are sure we want to go to LA., Las Vegas, the Grand Canyon, and New York.
We have a great package deal that I could recommend to you.
 If you fly business class on the international leg of your flight, you get four stops in America for the price of one. 
Sounds great! 
About how much is it going to cost me?
I will scout around for a good price and get back to you in a few days. 
Could I have your phone number, please? 
Sure. It is 8983-0992.
Ed is at the bank buying some traveler's checks.
May I help you sir?
I'd like to purchase one thousand two hundred dollars worth of   traveler's checks, please. 
How would you like them? 
We have twenty, fifty , and one hundred dollar denominations. 
Give me ten twenties, ten fifties, ten fifty, and five hundreds. 
The teller returns with the checks.
Here you go, sir. 
Would you please sign the top of the checks now?
Sure. 
Better safe than sorry.
Also, don't forget to keep a list of your check numbers in a safe place.
OK. 
What's the total?
There's a two percent service charge, sir, so that comes to one thousand two hundreds twenty-four dollars altogether. 
How would you like to pay? 
Can you just take it out of my account?  
Certainly, sir.
 Have a good trip.
Ed and Amy are packing for a trip.  
Don't forget to bring our passports and some extra cash. 
We'll also need our driver’s licenses if we plan to rent a car.
l'm taking a couple of dresses for formal occasions. 
You should take your dark suit.  
I will wear the jacket on the plane to save space.
We should take along some pills just in case you  get airsick.
Oh, man! 
Look at this suitcase. 
It's falling apart.
 I need a new one.
I'm taking along a duffel bag for bringing back anything we buy on the trip.
How about umbrellas and raincoats?
No. 
We can buy them there if we need it.
Ed and Amy plan to take a taxi to the airport.
Should we drive to the airport or take a taxi?
Let's take a taxi.
 Parking is pretty expensive, and my suitcases are too heavy to lug around.
Fine. 
It takes about an hour to get there, and we will hit rush hour, so we should leave at about seven o'clock
Good idea.
 Later on I'll call the airport taxi service and make a reservation.
I think your luggage is going to be over the weight limit.
 It looks like you're thinking of staying there for good.
Ha-ha!
 I already checked with the airlines, OK?
OK, just as long as you know that you are the one who is going to have to carry them. 
Ed and Amy are at the ticket counter checking in their luggage
Is this where we check in for flight two thirty-seven to Los Angeles?
Yes, it is sir.
Great.  
Here are our tickets and passports. 
Do you have a seating preference?
We'd like a seat with plenty of legroom.
 I will put you in the
How many bags do you want to check in?  
We have two each. 
Any carry-ons?
Just one. 
Here are your tickets and boarding passes. 
Your baggage claim tickets are attached. 
Have a great flight!
Ed and Amy’s flight has been delayed for an hour due to mechanical difficulties. 
Rats! 
We got up at the crack of dawn just to end up sitting around waiting. 
Well, at least we can relax here in the departure lounge. 
Look at all of these goodies. 
We won’t need to eat breakfast. 
And the chairs here are very comfortable. 
Time will fly. 
How will we know when our flight is ready to board? 
We will hear an announcement over the loudspeaker. 
I think I will nod off for a few minutes. 
Don’t worry. 
I will wake you up. 
By the way, did you notice which way our boarding gate is? 
You are such a worrywart.
 I know where the gate is. Now go to sleep.
Ed and Amy’s flight is now ready for boarding. 
Well, it is almost time. 
That nap in the lounge made me feel good. 
I am raring to go. 
All business-class passengers may now board the aircraft. 
That’s us, honey. 
Let’s go. 
Welcome aboard. 
Your seats are up front there on the right. 
Super.
 Lots of legroom to stretch out in.
 I just might take another nap! 
Do you mind if I sit by the window? 
Not at all. 
Just let me put my bag in the overhead bin. 
Look. 
Every seat has its own TV. 
Far out!
Would you like something to drink before we take off? 
We would both like some orange juice. 
Thanks. 
Ed and Amy are transit passengers at the airport. 
Excuse me. 
Is this the transit counter?
Yes, sir.
 How may I help you? 
I just came in on flight two thirty-seven and am transferring to Los Angeles. 
Do I have to change planes? 
May I see tour boarding pass, sir? 
Sure. 
Here it is. 
You are going to Los Angeles on flight two thirty-seven, so you do not have to change planes. 
Do I have time to make a phone call? 
Yes, you have half an hour. Just be at gate twelve for boarding at twelve thirty-five p.m.
Do I need to check in again? 
No, that is not necessary. 
Thank you. 
So long. 
The flight attendant is giving more instructions following takeoff. 
Ladies and gentlemen, please be advised that smoking is not allowed during the flight, neither in the cabin nor in the bathrooms. 
We will distribute headsets shortly. 
Please check the menu card in your seat pocket to help you make your meal selections. 
We will be coming around with drinks shortly. 
This is terrific service. 
Those snacks in the lounge will tide me over till we gets some real food. 
Did you notice the overhead lights and air-conditioning jets? 
You can turn them on and off with this button. 
What else have you discovered? 
There are nine music channels and four movies to choose from. 
I know what I will be doing on the flight. 
A meal is now being served on the airplane. 
Excuse me, sir. 
What would you like for dinner? 
We ordered the low-fat meat. 
Do we get a choice of entrees?
Yes. 
Today, we have broiled shrip with rice pilaf or chicken teriyaki served with noodles. 
I will have the chicken. 
I would like the shrimp. 
What else comes with the meal? 
Vegetables, salad, a roll, and yogurt for dessert.
 Would you care for some wine with dinner? 
Sure.
 We are celebrating. 
This is our second honeymoon.
 Let’s live a little. 
Congratulation. 
White or red? 
We would both like white. 
Yes, sir. 
Here you go. 
Ed and Amy want to buy some duty-free items. 
Did you see really cool stuff in there.
Excuse me, miss. 
How do we go about purchasing things in the catalog? 
You can order them here on the plane or visit one of the duty-free shops in the airport when we land. 
OK.
 I would like this model airplane. 
Sorry, ma’am. 
The model airplanes have been out of stock recently. 
How about these neat electronic gadgets?
You have to pay tax on them. 
I think I will wait and shop around at the airport. 
Just show your passport and boarding pass to the salesclerk. 
Thanks for the tip. 
The airplane is passong through some turbulence. 
Excuse me, sir.  
We are expecting some turbulences. 
Please take your seat and fasten your seat belt. 
I was just on my way to the john. 
Can you wait until the fasten-seat-belt sign goes off? 
Sorry, I cannot wait. 
All right, but please hurry. 
Ladies and gentlemen, we are experiencing some turbulence.
For your safety…
Amy is talking to Ed. 
There you are. 
You made it back just in time. 
When you gotta go, you gotta go!
Excuse me, ma'am. 
How long will this last? 
Only a few minutes. 
The plane has just passed through the turbulence, and Amy is not deeling well. 
I feel sick to my stomach. 
It's in knots. 
Do you feel dizzy?
Yes, and I feel like I'm going to throw up. 
Put your head doen. 
I'll call the flight attendant. 
Excuse me, miss? 
May I help ypu, sir? 
My wife is sick. 
I think it's from  the turbulence, 
Cover your mouth and bose with this papper bag and breathe slowly through your mouth about ten minutes. 
Try to relax. 
Do you feel any better? 
I feeel much better now. 
Here is an airsickness bag just in case you feel sick again. 
Thank you. 
The plane is about to land at the airport. 
Ladies and gentlemen, we are now approaching Los Angeles international airport.
The local time is seven a.m. 
Please fasten your seat belt, put your seat in the upright position, and return your table to its locked position. 
We are  almost there.
 I wonder what the temperature is. 
It is seventy-five degrees Fahrenheit, and there is no rain forecasted for days. 
That’s great! 
We really lucked out. 
Look around and make sure you haven’t forgotten anything. 
I looked already. 
We’re coming down pretty fast. 
Here. 
Chew some of this gun and keep swallowing hard. 
Thanks. 
My ears are all plugged up.
Amy and Ed’s plane has just landed at the airport. 
Ladies and gentlemen, we have now landed at the Los Angeles international airport. 
Please remain seated with your seat belts fastened until the seat-belt sign is switched off and the plane has come to a complete stop. 
That was really a very smooth landing. 
I didn’t feel a thing. 
How are your ears? 
Can you hear now? 
Everything is as clear as a bell. 
The seat-belt light just went out. 
Don’t forget your bag in the overhead compartment. 
Please leave your headphones in the seat pocket. 
We will pick them up later. Be sure to take your completed customs from with you. 
I have it in my purse, so we are all set. 
Ed is going through immigration. 
May I see your passport, please? 
How long will you be staying in the United States? 
Just three weeks. 
What is the purpose of your visit? 
My wife and I are on vacation. 
Where will you be staying?
We have hotel reservations in L.A.,Las Vegas, the Grand Canyon, and the New York. 
Do you have the address handy? 
Here is a copy of our itinerary. 
Thanks. Welcome to the U.S. 
Your papers are all in order. 
Thank you. 
Ed and Amy are asking directions to the baggage claim area and retrieving their luggage. 
Excuse me. 
Where is the baggage claim area? 
Go down the escalators at the end of the hallway, and the baggage claim is on your right. 
How will I know where to get my luggage? 
Just check the flight display board above each carousel. 
Do I have to how my ticket to get my bags? 
No, but double-check to make sure you get the right ones. 
Ed and Amy are at the luggage carousel.
Have you spotted our bags yet? 
Yeah. 
Those two, right? 
Sure enough, that is them. 
One of Amy's suitcase is missing. 
She reports it to the airlines's lost-luggage department. 
Oh, no. 
One of my suitcase didn't make it. 
What should we do? 
o know where the lost-liggage counter is. 
Let's go. 
I would like to report a missing bag. 
What flight were you on ?
Fight two thirty-seven from Tokyo. 
What color was the suitcase?
Black with a Nike logo on it. 　
Please fill in this form, and be sure to include a phone number where we can reach you. 
We will can you as soon as it arrives and arrange for it to be delivered to your hotel. 
Thank you. 
Amy is going through customs 
How do you do, ma’am? 
Do you have anything to declare today? 
Just this mango. 
Where did you get it?
I picked it at a friend’s farm. 
I am sorry.
 No fresh fruit, vegetables, or meats may be brought in. 
Darn it!
 I want to give it to a friend here. 
Well, I guess you can be the friend. 
Thanks, anyway, ma’am, bit we will have to destroy it. 
We do not want to risk infestation. 
You are really going throw out this delicious fruit? 
What a shame! 
If that’s all, ma’am, then you are free to go. 
Have a nice visit. 
Amy and Ed are walking through the airport terminal, and they get lost. 
With so many different hallways here, it is so confusing. 
I haven't have a clue as to where we are.
Just relax. 
We'll find it. 
Here's an information booth. 
Welcome to Los Angeles. 
We are totally lost. 
Where are the taxis?
Here's a map of the airport terminal, and here's yhe exit you want for the taxis. 
This is a big help. 
I got all tyrned around. 
Anything else I can help with? 
We would like to use the restroom. 
They're right near here. 
See over there by the turnstile? 
Just to the left. 
Thanks. 
Ed and Amy are taking the hotel shuttle to their hotel. 
Pardon me, but where can I call the Hilton for a shuttle pickup? 
There is a telephone on the pillar just down the hallway, sir. 
Thanks. 
C'mon, Amy. 
Hello. 
My name is Ed Potter. 
I would like to request a pickup from the airport. 
Certainly, sir. 
Please exit the terminal and go to the shuttle stop just outside the door. 
I will radio a driver to meet you. 
How long will it take? 
About ten minutes. 
How long is the ride to the hotel? 
Traffic is backed up today, so it will take about thirty minutes. 
Sorry about that. 
No problem. 
Thank you. 
Ed and Amy are checking in. 
Hi. 
I have a reservation for two. 
My name is Ed Potter. 
Yes, we have you down for three nights. 
I'll need your credit card. 
Please fill out this form and sign here. 
Not a problem. 
Here are your keys. 
Can I get a newspaper delivered to my room? 
Ceatainly. 
We'll just put it on your tab. 
Our breakfast buffet opens at six-thirty. 
Do you have any vrochures on things to do? 
There is a rack just around the corner with many pamphlets. 
Help yourself. 
Thank you so much. 
Ed has jet lag. 
Come on, laxybones. 
We just got here, and you're dozing off already. 
Huh?
What time is it anyway? 
Only five-thirty p.m.
We'd better not go to bed yet, or we will never get in sync with the time here. 
But I'm so beat. 
All I want to do is sleep. 
If I can cope, so can you. 
Didn't we bring some anti-jet lag medicine along? 
Amy gets the medicine. 
Here you go. 
Take two of these and no more jet lag. 
Are there any side effects? 
No, it says here that there aren't. 
I don't believe that dor a minute, but here goes nothing. 
Amy and Ed are ordering room service. 
Hello, operator?
How late is room service open? 
Until eleven-thirty p.m., sir. 
May I connect you?
Yes, please. 
Hello. 
Room service. 
We'd like a breakfast, please. 
Send up two eggs, sunny-side up, hash browns, and toast. 
Anything to drink?
Um, orange juice and coffee, please. 
Your room number? 
Room three forty-five. 
Got it. 
We'll send it right up to you. 
Thanks. 
Ed and Amy are going to eat breakfast at a hotel buffet. 
Hurry!
We are going to late for the breakfast buffet. 
This all loks so good, and it's all-you-can-eat. 
Quite a deal. 
I could eat a hourse. 
These sausages and biscuits look really good. 
I'm going for the waffles, fresh strawberries, and whipped cream. 
I think I'll have an omelet. 
Sir, I'll fix that omelet for you. 
What would you like in it? 
I'll have cheese, green onions, mushroom, and ham, with a little salsa on top. 
It'll be ready in a jiffy. 
Ed and Amy are checking out. 
We're all packed. 
I'll call the front desk. 
Amy is calling the front desk. 
Good morning. 
We’d like to check out now, please. 
May I have your room number, please? 
Certainly. 
This is room five-oh-one.
We'll send someone up to hekp you with your luggage right away. 
Amy and Ed are at the front desk checking out. 
Hi, folks. 
I hope you enjoyed your stay with us. 
Yes, thabk you. 
I would like to pay the bill. 
How would you like to take care of it? 
Put it on my credit card, please. 
Of course, sir. 
If you would just check the additional charges and sign herem that'll be everything. 
Ed is checking the bill. 
Everything seems to be in order. 
Here is your receipt. 
We hope that you'll stay with us again. 
Amy is renting a car. 
Hi, my name is Amy Potter.
 I called in advance about renting a car for three days. 
May I see your driver’s license, passport, and credit card, please? 
 Here is my international driver’s license, credit card, and passport. 
Would you like to get insurance?
No, my gold card covers that. 
The agent is indicting places on the form.
Please sigh on all the lines marked with an X and initial here and here. 
What are the charges? 
A three-day package is two hundred fifty dollars. 
You get unlimited mileage, and if you sill the tank before bringing the car back, you will save a the-dollar fill-up charge. 
Here are your keys. 
Thanks. 
Ed and Amy are filling up the car. 
I forgot to find out how to open the gas tank. 
Look in the glove box and see if there is a manual. 
I don’t think we need the manual. 
There should be a lever beside your seat. Just pall it. 
Hey!
You are right.  
It just popped open.
This is a self-service station, and it is cheaper if you pay in cash. 
Do you think I should put in premium or regular? 
Premium. 
I will use the squeegee to clean the windshield. 
I would better check the oil. 
I am going to the convenient store for a snack. 
Do you want something to it? 
Sure, thanks. 
Get me some soda and chips. 
Ed is speaking with a police officer after being caught speeding. 
Excuse me, sir. 
May I see your driver's license and registration. 
What is the problem, officer?
You were driving seventy in a fifty-mile-an-hour zone. 
I am going to have to give you a ticket. 
Officer, I'm not from around here. 
How do I pay it? 
You can mail the ticket with a check for the correct amount. 
You also have the right to contest the violation in a court of law. 
Well, I don't have a cank account with an American bank. 
Do you have a credit card? 
You can pay with that. 
That's a relief. 
Keep an eye on the speed linit during the rest of your visit. 
Joey and Rachel have a map to direct them from their hotel to Disneyland. 
Rachel, why don’t you drive, and I will navigate? 
That is fine with me. 
Joey is looking at the map.
Here’s Disneyland on page four. 
Go to the intersection and turn south. 
Your sense of direction is better than mine.
 I need right or left. 
OK. 
Turn left at Lanker shim Avenue and make another left at Collette Boulevard. 
Now what? 
Right there!
 Take that freeway entrance onto high 101 till you see 1-5. 
Here we are at 1-5. 
Now just keep going about twenty miles until you see the Disneyland exit. 
Gotcha. 
That was easy. 
Here we are at the Magic Kingdom! 
Tim and Annie are riding the subway to the theater. 
Excuse me. 
Where can we catch the subway? 
Just across the street. See? 
There is an entrance overt there. 
Oh, yeah. I see it. 
Thanks, officer. 
Hi. 
Where can we buy some tokens? 
Tokens were phase out in 2003. 
We use Metrocaod now. 
You can buy at the Metrocard vending machine over there. 
The machine accepts bills, credit cards, or debit cards.
 Just touch the vending-machine screen to get started. 
How much does it cost to get to Broadway? 
Well, a 1-day Unlimited Ride Fun Pass costs 8.25 dollars. 
Or you could buy a single-ride ticket for 2.25 dollars. 
It is late, so Tim and Annie take a cub from the theater back to the hotel. 
Let’s hail a cab., so we do not have to ride the subway so late. 
Here comes one now. 
I will hail it. 
Do you have the hotel’s business card? 
Yeah, I have got one.
 It has the hotel’s address and phone number. 
Where to go? 
The Park Plaza Hotel, please. 
Here is the address. 
I know that hotel. it is a nice place. 
Have you been in town long? 
Just a few days. What about you? 
Are you a native New Yorker? 
Well, I was born and raised in California.
 I moved to New York about ten years ago. 
Watch out. 
You nearly ran over that old lady. 
Relax. 
Get used to it.  
This is New York.
Tom and Tina are asking a passerby to take a picture for them. 
Excuse me, sir.
Would you mind taking a few pictures for us? 
Sure. 
Just stand over there. 
Can you get the Empire State Building in?
Move back a little bit. 
Now to the lest. 
There, that's perfect. 
Say cheese. 
Thanks. 
Could you rake another one, please?
I can't seem to get it focused. 
Just push the button on the front, under the lens. 
It should zoom in. 
Got it. 
Any more?
Could you snap a picture for us next to this sign?
You have got it. 
Move in a little closer there, friends. 
Try not to squint. 
Thabks for everything. 
Tina is looking for Rockefeller Center. 
Excuse me, miss.
 Is this the way to Rockefeller Center? 
No, you are way off. 
Do you have a minute to give me directions? 
Sure. 
You are about a fifteen-minute walk away. 
First cross the street, and go three blocks east. 
Which way is east? 
That way. 
Then head south until you come to a flashing neon sign. 
How far is that? 
Four blocks, give or take a block. 
Are there any other landmarks? 
Yeah, there is a big foundation. 
Go past the foundation, turn right at the corner, and the Center’s on the right. 
Thanks so much. 
Tina wants to change some Taiwanese dollars into US dollars at a bank. 
Pardom me. 
I'd like to change money-NT dollars for US dollars. 
Certainly, ma'am. 
The exchange rate is thirty-four NT dlooars for one US dollars. 
By the way, that includes the banj fee. 
That's a bad rate. 
I should have done this in Taipei. 
I would like to buy two hundred US dollars. 
That'll be six thousand eight hundred NT.
May I see some identification, please. 
Here's my passport. 
Please fillout this form and sign it. 
We'll need a local contact address where you can be reached. 
We're staying at the Park Plaza Hotel. 
That's fine. 
Will that be all? 
I just need a receipt, thanks. 
Tom and Tina are looking for sightseeong brochures and city tour information. 
Hi. 
We'd like to join a sightseeing day tour. 
You can take a limo, a tour bus, or join a walking tour.
It's up to you. 
Which best covers the major attractions?
This bus tour what your're looking for. 
It visits the Empire State Building, Times Square, and, of course, the Statue of Liberty. 
Do you have any brochures? 
You'll receive a complete information package when you board the bus. 
OK, we'll take the New Year's Eve tour. 
We'll see you at eight-thirty on Friday. 
Oh, and lunch is included, as well. 
Be sure to bring your camera with you. 
Tina and Tom are buying souvenirs. 
Excuse me. 
How much is this cap?
The cap's sixteen dollars and fifty cents. 
And this T-shirt? 
Twenty-four dollars and ninety-five cents. 
Yikes. 
They're expensive. 
This cap glows in the dark and that shirt won't shrink, wrinkle, or fade. 
Well, in that case, how can I go wrong? 
How many world you like? 
Two shirts. 
What sizes do they come in?
Small, medium, large, and extra-large. 
I guess we'll take two larges. 
Would you like them gift-wrapped?
No, thanks. 
They're for us. 
Tina's buying a postcard and stamps. 
The scenery here is so beautiful. 
Let's send a postcard home to our family. 
I saw a rack of postcards in the foyer. 
They've got quite a selection. 
My goodness. 
There are so many to choose from. 
Which one do you like? 
This one of the sun getting over desert is nice. 
It's so different from where we live. 
How much is it? 
Only thirty-five cents
Let's see if they have any stamps. 
Excuse me. 
Do you sell stamps here? 
Yes, we do. 
I need enough for a postcard to Taiwan.
That'll be ninety-eight cents, and thirty-five cents for the postcard. 
With tax, that comes to one dollar and forty-three cents. 
I only have a fifty. 
Sorry, I can't break a fifty. 
Tina and Tom are reporting a lost handbag. 
Oh, no. 
I've lost my handbag. 
Where did you lose it? 
Well, I had it when we got on the bus. 
It must be there. 
My bus ticket has a number to call. 
Good. 
I'll call them and report it. 
Big Apple Bus Line. 
May I help you? 
My wife left her shoulder bag on a number one-oh-one bus. 
Has anyone turned it in yet? 
No, sir. 
Could you describe it and give me a number where you can reach you?
It's a brown leather bag with the initials AC on it. 
Our phone number is 555-2764.
Lost and found will call if it's recovered. 
Tina' on the phone making a doctor's appointment for Tom, and she takes him to the clinic. 
Hello. 
I'd like to make an appointment for my husband to see a doctor. 
What's the problem?
He has a high fever. 
You can come to our emergency clinic for this afternoon at two thirty. 
Good afternoon. 
I'm Mrs. Chen. 
I called for an appointment for my husband. 
Would you please fill out this form?
Do you have any health insurance? 
No, none in America, so I guess we'll have to pay out of pocket. 
I feel terrible. 
I think I'm going to pass out. 
Lie down here, sir. 
The doctor will be right in. 
This is a real drag. 
Cindy and Terry are shopping in a local supermarket. 
Can you believe this place?
The selection is mind-boggling. 
Look at all the different breads and all these gourment desserts. 
How about this deli?
I just love the cheese, and they make party platters to order. 
This is what you call one-step shopping. 
This place has everything: cosmetics, household items, and lots more. 
Here's the bulk food section. 
Just scoop out what you want and put a twist tie on the bag. 
Would you like paper or plastic? 
Plastic is fine. 
Can I pay with a credit card? 
Sure. 
Just slide your card through this machine and punch "yes" when the total shows. 
Cindy and Terry are ordering a meal in a fast-food restaurant. 
Hey, guys. 
What'll it be? 
I'd like a double cheeseburger, fries, and a shake. 
And I'll jave a fillet of fish, a chicken burger, a large tooseed salad, onion rings, and a shake. 
Strawberry. 
Tropical fruit. 
Altogether, that'll be sixteen dollars and ninety-eight cents. 
Here's twenty. 
Is that for here or to go? 
For here. 
Here's your change, three dollars and two cents. 
Thanks, folks. 
Enjoy. 
Terry is making a dinner reservation. 
Good evening. 
Brown Derby. 
May I help you? 
Yes, I'd like to make a dinner reservation for this Saturday night at seven. 
We're booked solid. 
How about seven-thirty? 
We'll have a booth available then. 
That's fine. 
Smoking or nonsmoking?
Nonsmoking. 
Is the booth by the window? 
Yes. 
It overlooks the park. 
Excellent. 
That'll do nicely. 
May I have your name and phone number, please? 
Terry Chen, and the number is 555-8910.
Cindy and Terry are having dinner at the very popular Brown Derby restaurant. 
Good evening. 
Would you like a cocktail before dinner? 
Let's velebrate. 
I'll have a glass of champagne. 
It's our big night out on the town. 
May I take your order? 
We'll start with oyster Rockefeller. 
And for the main course?
What do you recommend? 
Our piece de resistance is filet mignon with roasted hazelnuts and truffles. 
I'm convinced. 
My mouth is watering just thinking about it. 
For dessert, I suggest the chocolate mousse. 
Vicky and Sean spend a day at Disneyland. 
We're finally here at the Magic Kingdom!
I am so excited. 
I've got our admission passports, so we don't have to stand in line at the ticket booth. 
Let's hit the most popular reides before they gwt too crowded. 
Fantasyland is the most popular spot, so let's go there first. 
Look!
There are Mickey and Minnie. 
Let's get a picture with them. 
OK, but quick, and then we'll zip over to the Indiana Jones ride. 
I'm hungry. 
Let's try some Cajun food in the New Orleans Square.
Sounds good. 
Then we have to grab some souvenirs to take back with us. 
Before all that, let's watch the Street Party Parade. 
Sean is calling Universal Studios for directions and information about buying tickets. 
Hello. 
I'd like some information about buying tickets. 
Yes, sir. 
Our bix office is open from eighty-thirty a.m. to four o'clock p.m.
How much is a ticket for an adult? 
It's fifty-seven dollars for an adult. 
You can buy your ticket at the front gate. 
I will be coming from the Hilton Hotel. 
How do I get there? 
Just get on route 101 south and take the exit ramp marked "Exit 29, Universal Studios."
Are there any parking spaces nearby? 
There is a paring lot on the premises. 
It's seven dollars for cars and ten dollars for RVs. 
Thanks a bunch. 
Vicky is signing up for a bus tour to Los Vegas. 
Good afternoon, miss. 
Can you help us arrange a bus tour? 
Yes bet. 
Where would you like to go? 
Do you have a two-day tour to Las Vegas the day after tomorrow?
Yes, we do. 
For how many?
There are two fo us. 
What tome does the bus leave, and where do we catch it? 
The bus leaves at a quarter past six in the morning. 
It will pick you up at your hotel. 
That's very convenient. 
We're staying at the Millennium Biltmore Hotel. 
Oh, and one more thing: How long does it take to get there? 
About five hours. 
Your meals are included in the price of your ticket. 
Sounds good to me. 
Thanks. 
Vicky and Sean are gambling at a casino in Las Vegas. 
My word!
Did you ever see so many one-armed bandits in all your life? 
Those people look like they've been sitting there for hours on end. 
I know. 
They're waiting to hit the jackpot. 
I feel lucky tonight. 
I think I'll try the machines for a while. 
How about you? 
I think I'll try the craps table. 
I love to watch the dice roll. 
OK, but don't get too carried away. 
Stick to our budget. 
Don't worry. 
I won't lose control. 
If you say so. 
Just wish me luck. 
Vicky and Sean are attending a show at the hotel. 
Wow!
You look so beautiful!
You could be in the show. 
OK, that's enough. 
You don't look so bad yourself. 
I've always wanted to see a Vegas show wth Tom Jones headlining. 
Our table is down center. 
We can have dinner while we watch the show. 
Neat/ 
Boy, this is really great!
The music is fantastic. 
Look at those gorgeous costumes. 
It look like a full house tonight. 
One of them is pointing at you. 
I think she wants you to join her on the stage. 
No way!
I suddenly have to go to the restroom. 
See you in a few minutes. 
Sean and Vicky are at the Grand Canyon. 
This is Mother Nature at her best. 
Vicky is shaking. 
Do you have to stand so close to the edge? 
What are you talking about? 
There's a railing. 
I can't possibly fall. 
Sean climbs the railing. 
Sean, come down now. 
Vicky, it's OK.
Don't be such a worrywart. 
Nothing's going to happen. 
Says you!
I really feel uncomfortable here. 
Let's go. 
Go? 
You've got to be pulling my leg. We only just got here a few minutes age, and we still have the mule ride. 
I'm going to get you for this. 
I feel even worse than I did at the edge. 
Vicky and Sean are flying into New York City at Christmastime. 
I'm so glad this flight is in the daytime. 
Can you see down there? 
It's the Statue of Liberty. 
Yes!
And look over there!
I can see Central Park. 
I see the Empire State Building. 
It's even bigger than I imagined. 
The map shows the Empire State Building is located on Fifth Avenue. 
I can't wait to go shopping there and see all of the beautiful Chtistmas decorations. 
There are tons of restaurants to check out, too. 
Maybe we could take romantic horse-drawn carriage ride, too. 
Central Park is right near our hotel. 
We can take a stroll in the moonlight. 
We're about to land. 
Welcome to the Big Apple, Sean. 
Vicky and Sean are taking a carriage ride around Central Park. 
What a beautiful night. 
You sure said it. 
How about a buggy ride through the park? 
How did you know? 
That's just what I was thinking. 
Great minds think alike. 
Sean, do you see that? 
I think it's starting to snow again. 
We're going to have a white Christmas. 
All those Christmas lights and the snow. 
The park looks like a wonderland. 
You'd never guess by the look of it, but there's a mugging here every five minutes. 
Thanks for running the moment.  
Sean and Vicky are on a sightseing tour in New York City. 
Welcome aboard. 
Let's do roll call, and then we can get started. 
We'll start off our tour in Battery Park to give you a spectacular harbor view of the statue of Liberty. 
Excuse me. 
Will the tour include a ferry trip to Lady Liberty and Ellis Island? 
Sorry, little lady, our tour doesn't , but you can take a ferry there almost anytime. 
The Empire State Building is currently the tallest building in New York. 
It is one of the great dames of New York architevture. 
When was it built? 
It was built in the depths of the Depression in only four hundred and ten days. 
Amazing. 
Vicky and Sean are taking a tour of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. 
Here's a floor plan. 
We have a walking tour starting in ten minutes. 
Thank you. 
Can we take pictures? 
Yes, but no flash.
 Welcome. 
Today, we will see a display of Mary Cassatt's pronts. 
Do you have any questions? 
I wonder if you might have any literature in Chinese. 
Yes, ma'am. 
The International Visitor Desk is located in the Great Hall. 
They can assist you there. 
Do you want to get a bite to eat later? 
Be quiet. 
I'm trying to listen. 
Vicky and Sean are relaxing with a drink and snacks before dinner. 
How about the ambiance? 
The fireplace is so cozy. 
I feel like we're in jolly old England and not in downtown New York City. 
What'll it be, folks? 
We both would like a pint of your dark beer. 
Coming right up. 
Anything else? 
What do you recommend? 
If you'd like something really delicious, try our hot artichoke chowder. 
That sounds really yummy. 
We'll have that. 
Great ready for some good eating. 
Good. 
I'm starving. 
The bartender brings their food. 
Here you go, folks. 
Vicky and Sean are at a theater to see a Broadway play. 
We were really lucky to get tickets to this play. 
I know . 
It's been sold out for months. 
The scalper's prices weren't too bad, either. 
They are in the mezzanine, so we'll be all right. 
Sean and Vicky are lookng for their seats. 
What row are we in? 
Row M. 
Excuse me. 
Is this row M. 
Tes, it is. 
What seats do we have? 
Ten and eleven. 
Right here. 
Hurry, the performance is about to begin. 
OK. 
It's only scends to midnight in Times Square, and Vicky and Sean are ther seeing in the New Year. 
Amazing. 
This place is zbsolutely wall-to-wall people. 
Look at that big ball up there, all lit up. 
What a way to see in the New Year. 
Where did you get the streamers and noisemakers? 
Somebody just handed them to me. 
Here, take one. 
The countdown is about to begin. 
This [lace is on TV all over the world. 
Look. 
The ball is starting to fall. 
Ten… nine… eight… 
Get ready with the noisemarkers. 
OK,here we go. 
Three… two… one!
Happy New Year. 
Pucker up. 
In a move that’ll surprise precisely no one, Volvo has revealed it’ll be pooling resources with its parent company Geely – but specifically in the area of combustion engines.
The move will result in a new ‘global supplier’ of next-gen hybrid and ICE engines, and will leave a direct future-proofed path for further EV development. 
They still are – and you can read about the best ones, and most exciting ones here – but there’s still significant demand for ICE power. And because that demand is going reduce eventually, it’s far more efficient to pool resources, and divert the savings to the next new battery-powered battleground.
The new arrangement will certainly benefit Volvo, which expects all of its sales to be electrified by 2025, with half full BEV and half hybrid. 
The move will also benefit the rest of the Geely empire too, with the likes of Proton, Lynk & Co and Lotus all gaining access to a new supplier – the latter’s SUV-shaped ambitious feels like a perfect fit for the new engines.
Geely says that the new engines could also be sold to third-parties – so it’s possible Geely could franchise out its ICE expertise in the same way BMW is set to do for the JLR group. 
Right now, both Geely and Volvo will carve out and separate their ICE departments from the rest of the business – and after that they’ll look to combine them.
When I first flew the original Swearingen SJ30 in San Antonio more than a decade ago, I was impressed with the light jet’s rocketlike performance.
Jets with cruise speeds of nearly 500 knots true and a maximum range of 2,500 nm were and still are rare.
The original SJ30’s ability to hold its cabin at sea level sea up to 41,000 feet also made the airplane a winner.
The jet’s designer, Ed Swearingen, gained fame 40 years ago with a line of tough, fast Merlin and the regional Metroliner turboprops with a design philosophy–large wings and big engines are not always the better answer–at the heart of the light jet.
Actor Morgan Freeman signed up as an early owner of one of the single-pilot certified jets.
While I came away from that first flight impressed with the airplane’s performance, I remember a nagging question I posed to my company demo pilot, Mark Fairchild, after we landed.
Why will anyone spend $6M (then) for an airplane with a steam-gauge cockpit, when so many aircraft in 2006 were debuting with a host of glass cockpit options?
Turns out not too many people did. Over the years the original SJ30 suffered through some financial and mismanagement turmoil, including a number of prominent accidents. 
Many people assumed it was only a matter of time before the sprightly little jet disappeared completely.
But some people, like Mark Fairchild, never lost faith in the airplane. As NBAA 2019 opens in Las Vegas this week, SyberJet Aircraft, the new owners of the SJ30 series, are attending having just completed a successful maiden flight of the updated SJ30i.
SyberJet conducted the flight from its Engineering and Product Development Center at the San Antonio International Airport (KSAT) and kicked off an 18-month certification test program which will culminate in an amended type certificate for the SJ30i and immediate subsequent deliveries thereafter.
The new SJ30i, powered by a pair of Williams FJ44-2A engines, retains most of the same performance of the original airplane, but has brought both the cockpit and cabin up to modern standards. 
Up front, pilots will find as standard four 12-inch liquid crystal displays, with the SmartView synthetic vision system (SVS), INAV moving map display system, electronics charts/maps, TCAS II, TAWS Level A, synoptic displays, dual flight management systems (FMS) with dual WAAS GPS/LPV, single inertial navigation system (IRS), onboard weather radar, full EICAS, electronic checklists, DME, ADS-B Out, and 0.3-nm RNP, as well as support for FANS-1A, SmartLanding, SmartRunway, TOLD, ADS-B In, emergency descent mode, and RVSM operations. 
SJ30i options include CPDLC, XM weather, flight data recorder, cockpit voice recorder, dual charts/maps, HF radio, SATCOM, enhanced vision systems, second MFD, and the flexibility for other customer requests.
Mark Elwess, chief engineering test pilot and senior flight test engineer Robert Moehle crewed the SJ30i on its first flight. 
Elwess said, "We completed all of the test points planned for the first flight and got a look at how much easier the cockpit and systems are to manage with the new Honeywell Epic 2.0 cockpit.
The SJ30i known as the fastest and longest ranged light jet on the market now has a cockpit to lead us into the next generation."
Mark Fairchild, now Syberjet’s vice president of customer experience, said, "The SJ30i takes the original SJ30-2 to the next level.
While it remains the fastest and longest-range jet in its class, the SJ30 now has all of the advances in cockpit and electronic design to make it simply the finest light jet available.
In addition, the SJ30i also features an all new interior design in conjunction with the lowest cabin altitude of any business jet flying today.
NBAA visitors can see the flight test aircraft at Static Space SD908 at Henderson Executive Airport.
Turquoise Yachts has partnered with DeBasto Design to unveil a new 62 metre explorer yacht concept named Project Nautilus.
Revealed at the Fort Lauderdale International Boat Show, Project Nautilus is described by the yard as a “go-anywhere vessel”, marrying a functional layout with luxury accommodation.
Penned inside and out by DeBasto Design, Project Nautilus sports as “purposeful, masculine look” while being “elegant and timeless,” the yard said.
Key features include a 13.4-metre-long tender deck located at the front of the superstructure, which can accommodate a 12-metre tender.
With the tender deck forward, the owner’s staterooms sits on the upper deck with access to two exterior terraces for far reaching ocean views.
The remaining guest accommodation is for 10 guests in five cabins. There is also a full-size cinema that can be converted into a seventh guest cabin.
Elsewhere, Project Nautilus features a swimming pool on the aft main deck, a lower deck beach club, gym, sauna and hot tub on the top deck.
DeBasto’s layout provide a specific service traffic pattern to allow complete separation between guests and crew on all guests.
The crew accommodation meanwhile comprises seven double ensuite crew cabins, including a captain’s cabin on the bridge deck. 
The rest of the crew cabins sit on the lower deck, alongside two crew lounges.
Project Nautilus follows the in-build 53 metre Turquoise superyacht Tala, which was also penned by DeBasto Designs.
Valley Metro has awarded Motor Coach Industries (MCI) a five-year contract for up to 50 MCI D45 CRT LE and D45 CRT Commuter Rapid Transit coaches.
The contract begins with an initial order for four MCI D45 CRT LE coaches, scheduled for delivery in summer 2020. 
The procurement is part of Valley Metro's strategic plan to improve the level of service and passenger comfort on its commuter express highway routes connecting Phoenix, Ariz., Mesa, Tempe and surrounding communities.
"We are excited to introduce a style of commuter bus that will enhance the overall experience for our express riders," said Scott Wisner, bus services delivery manager, Valley Metro.
"In addition to enhanced comfort and safety amenities, the area designated for mobility devices will help riders more easily board and exit the bus."
ADA and Buy America compliant and Altoona tested, MCI says its commuter coach has a low-entry vestibule featuring an automated retractable ramp that delivers shorter dwell times and a more efficient boarding process for all passengers.
The MCI D45 CRT LE has a shorter turning radius which helps with navigation around city streets.
The new model, which went into production in 2019, also offers enhanced interior illumination and brighter LED headlights to enhance visibility.
 A wider front door with an ergonomic spiral entryway also features enhanced illumination on the stairwell.
While Valley Metro has operated heavy-duty transit buses by MCI's sister company, New Flyer, on its regional routes, this order represents Valley Metro’s first purchase of MCI commuter coaches.
"We are extremely honored to have an opportunity to support Valley Metro," said Tom Wagner, MCI vice president public sector.
"When designing this coach, MCI consulted with leading advocacy groups, including the National Council on Independent Living, that evaluated numerous concepts and the final prototype design. 
Their participation guided the coach design, creating a versatile, comfortable and more accessible commuter coach for systems like Valley Transit.
Four crew members were killed when the helicopter went down in rugged terrain in the northeast part of the country.
A rescue helicopter crashed on Saturday after it collided with the world’s longest zipline in Ras al-Khaimah in the northeastern region of the United Arab Emirates, killing the four crew members on board.
Video showed the Leonardo AW139 spinning out of control before crashing in a fireball as the helicopter was flying a rescue mission at about 5:50 p.m. local time on Saturday near the UAE’s highest mountain of Jebel Jais.
The zipline spans a length of 1.74 miles long at an altitude of 5,512 feet msl.
The summit of the mountain is 6,345 feet msl. It opened in February to allow the smaller emirate of Ras al-Khaimah to attract more tourists and residents from neighboring emirates like Abu Dhabi and Dubai.
The helicopter was operated by the UAE’s National Search and Rescue Center.
The UAE’s General Civil Aviation Authority said it is investigating.
Rolls-Royce Motor Cars used Geneva 2019 to pull the covers off its new range of Bespoke – a near-infinite combinations of trim, colour and material options that will tailor any Rolls-Royce into exactly what the buyer wants.
The company also confirmed that its Black Badge models can also be customised as part of the Bespoke programme.
Rolls-Royce's boss also used the show to confirm that the company had its best year ever in 2018, with its highest recorded sales and 200 new jobs confirmed at the company’s HQ in Goodwood
The first Bespoke Cullinan was unveiled at Geneva. It’s called - unimaginatively - the Geneve 2019.
 It’s a trim and paint upgrade that majors on an interesting theme.
In this case, the exterior recalls the khaki shades worn by explorers, while inside, Navy Blue and Oatmeal are the colours of choice.
In the back, you get stainless steel cocktail and seasoning services, alongside some terribly tasteful glassware and American Walnut serving boards.
You can mix drinks in RR-monogrammed highball crystal glasses to go with the luxury picnic set that’s integral to this car.
Your butler will also be able to make use of a hidden compartment that contains napkins, paring knives, and stainless steel drinking straws.
Finally, there are two boot-mounted rear seats which RR calls the Viewing Suite.
Topping the saloon range is the Phantom, and the limited edition Bespoke version of this is known as the Tranquillity. 
Just 25 will be built, and features include an interior design inspired by elements of the British Skylark space rocket.
In a nutshell, there are shadow patterns fashioned in the highly-reflective stainless steel inserts, and these are complemented by 24-carat gold plating and space grade aluminium.
There are genuine slivers of the Muonionalusta meteorite, which fell to earth in Kiruna, Sweden in 1906 – which makes the extensive use of gold on the interior controls seem ever-so ordinary.
The interior is a work of art with liberal use of black gloss finish that’s highlighted with stainless steel Pinstripes.
The space theme continues with yellow gold speaker grilles, which Rolls-Royce says is inspired by the two gold records containing sounds and images that went with the Voyager exploration probe in the late-1970s.
It’s largely the same story with the Geneve 2019 Dawn model, which majors on paint that’s lacquered with glass particles to allow the car to shimmer under the show lights.
You know the drill – if you have to ask, you can’t afford it.
But an RR spokesperson whispered on stand that more customers than ever are demanding personalisation – and all but the most over-the-top requests can be accommodated.
Dubai’s transport authority signs another Memorandum of Understanding, this time with tech giant Cisco, in a bid to protect fare revenues.
Dubai’s Roads and Transport Authority (RTA) has signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Cisco to use sophisticated technologies to spot bus fare evaders.
The MoU is the latest step in RTA’s strategy to optimise inspection processes and protect public transport revenues.
Ahmed Hashim Bahrozyan, CEO of Public Transport Agency, and Shukri Eid Atari, Managing Director, Cisco, East Region, signed the MoU during GITEX 2019 at World Trade Centre, in the presence of several officials from both parties.
“The MoU calls for the installation of smart cameras on board buses to ease the job of inspectors in detecting fare evaders on board public buses.
The step marks the introduction of a new generation of artificial intelligence technology, computer vision and effective monitoring.
The technology will be used on a trial base on some buses to assess the results,” said Bahrozyan.
“RTA is operating about 1,615 buses covering all parts of Dubai and connecting with key cities in the UAE to serve millions of passengers.
As buses are important source of RTA’s revenues, it is imperative to use advanced technologies to curb fare evasion and detect the incorrect tapping of cards on fare validation machines,” he added.
“This MoU forms part of Cisco’s ongoing Country Digital Acceleration programme, which aims to harness the power of disruptive technologies to develop smarter solutions for the advancement of the UAE’s national infrastructure.
We are proud to partner with RTA in transforming the process and experience of public transportation for operators, commuters and tourists alike.
The technology also ensures fairness in benefiting from public transportation means in Dubai,” said Eid.
Local Motors and Maryland DOT agree to expand Olli testing in National Harbor, including some public roads to help provide solutions to the city's congestion challenges.
Local Motors by LM Industries Inc., in partnership with the Maryland Department of Transportation (MDOT), has expanded the testing of Olli, its low-speed, connected, self-driving shuttle, to public roads in National Harbor.
Due to a landmark local permit, Olli will collect imperative insights to help solve Maryland's most pressing transportation challenges such as traffic congestion, accessibility, and environmental concerns like pollution.
As Olli completes its route on private and public roads, Local Motors' engineers will collect and analyze data in real-time from scenarios such as intersection crossing, and interactions with pedestrians.
The route will serve as an alternative transportation option to the residents and employees of National Harbor as well as visiting tourists, carrying them to harbor attractions and commerce centers.
Any interested member of the public who is a guest of Local Motors can ride Olli Monday through Friday from 10:00 AM-5:00 PM ET. 
To become guests of Local Motors, register at rideOlli.com to sign a waiver and get a QR Code to board the vehicle.
"Our goal at Local Motors is to create and deliver safe and accessible mobility solutions for local communities," said Vikrant Aggarwal, President of Local Motors.
"By completing 'real-world' testing on public roads in National Harbor, we're compiling the data needed to ensure that Olli meets consumer needs and desires in all scenarios."
This public road testing in Maryland also marks the power of local legislators working with American manufacturers like Local Motors to drive mobility innovation.
Under Senator Van Hollen's leadership, Maryland has positioned itself on the cutting-edge of electric and autonomous vehicle testing.
"Visiting Local Motors this week gave me the opportunity to see their innovative work first-hand.
 I appreciated the chance to tour their facility and learn more about their efforts to create sustainable, accessible new forms of transportation.
I look forward to seeing their continued progress with Olli," said Senator Van Hollen, who toured the Local Motors facility in National Harbor, Md. on Monday.
Olli is an environmentally-friendly, viable and sustainable transportation option for cities, companies, hospitals, campuses and other locations where people need to move from one place to another.
The shuttle features cognitive response technology and sensors, and an obstacle avoidance system, which are provided in partnership with Robotics Research.
Robotics Research, a leading provider of autonomous and robotic technologies to commercial and federal customers, assisted Local Motors in the mapping of National Harbor. For more information on Olli, visit localmotors.com/meet-olli/.
Local Motors by LM Industries Group Inc. is a ground mobility company focused on shaping the future for the better. Founded in 2007 with a belief in open collaboration and co-creation, Local Motors began low volume vehicle manufacturing of open-source designs using multiple microfactories.
Since inception, Local Motors has debuted no less than three world firsts; the world's first co-created vehicle, the world's first 3D-printed car and the world's first co-created, self-driving, electric vehicle, Olli.
We believe that Olli is the answer to a sustainable, accessible transportation solution for all.
The U.S. Senate passed a minibus spending package for Fiscal Year 2020 (H.R. 3055), which includes four appropriations bills concerning the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Housing and Urban Development, Interior, Justice and Transportation, as well as the Environmental Protection Agency and National Aeronautics and Space Administration
The spending package will now move into conference with the Senate and the House of Representatives. 
The U.S. Department of Transportation was provided $86.6 billion for FY2020 in the package, which is $167 million above the FY2019 enacted level.
Within the USDOT’s portion of the package, key programs funded would include: $1 billion for Better Utilizing Investments to Leverage Development (BUILD) grants with $15 million that would be available for planning grants.
$1.25 billion for the Surface Transportation Block Grant funds and for the elimination of hazards at railway/highway grade crossings.
$2.8 billion for the Federal Railroad Administration, which includes $255 million for the Consolidated Rail Infrastructure and Safety Improvement grants program, $300 million for Federal-State Partnership for State of Good Repair grants and $2 million for Restoration and Enhancement grants.
Amtrak was funded with $2 billion, which includes $680 million for the Northeast Corridor.
$13.0 billion for the Federal Transit Administration, which includes $10.1 billion in transit formula grants from the Mass Transit Account of the Highway Trust Fund and $560 million in transit infrastructure grants from the general fund.
The bill provides a total of $1.978 billion for Capital Investment Grants (CIG), fully funding all current “Full Funding Grant Agreement” transit projects, as well as new projects that have met the criteria of the CIG program.
Most important to the transit industry was the spending package’s inclusion of an amendment that would block automatic cuts to public transit funding, a penalty that would have cut $1.2 billion from formula funding and impacted every public transit agency in the U.S.
The automatic reduction in funding was triggered earlier this year following the Mass Transit Account of the Highway Trust Fund failing a FY2020 forward-looking solvency test.
The amendment to block the automatic cut was submitted by U.S. Sen. Martha McSally (R-AZ) and U.S. Sen. Doug Jones (D-AL).
“Without legislative action to block this cut, public transit agencies across America will suffer a 12 percent across-the-board funding cut,” said Sen. McSally.
“These cuts would be devastating to all of our communities. Transit funds in my home state of Arizona are critically important to our quickly growing communities.
Maricopa County was the fastest-growing county in the United States last year, and cities such as Flagstaff and Tucson are also attracting more jobs and more families.”
The American Public Transportation Association led a coalition supporting the amendment.
APTA President and CEO Paul Skoutelas said the association hailed the passage of the spending package with the adoption of the McSally-Jones amendment.
“The Jones-McSally Amendment prevents a $1.2 billion cut to public transportation funding by blocking a 12 percent across-the-board funding cut to every transit agency in the nation in fiscal year 2020,” said Skoutelas.
“APTA thanks Sen. Doug Jones and Sen. Martha McSally for offering this critical bipartisan amendment to protect public transit funding from implementation of the Rostenkowski Test…
APTA remains committed to building a stronger and more interconnected transportation system across America and will continue to work with Congress and the Administration to ensure adequate funding is available to maintain transit services and support critical projects that will repair, maintain and improve our public transit systems today and in the future.”
The new myStandardAero app and 10,000th Falcon airframe service event are highlights.
Major milestones were announced Monday by StandardAero Business Aviation at the National Business Aviation Association's 2019 Business Aviation Convention & Exhibition.
The company is currently completing its 10,000th Falcon airframe service event since 2000, on a recently acquired Falcon 7X. In addition, StandardAero also just completed its 400th major HTF7000 maintenance event.
“Most of the HTF7000 events so far have been completed in our Augusta, Georgia, shop but many have also taken place remotely, either at customer locations or during AOGs,” said Marc Drobny, President of StandardAero Business Aviation.
“We are committed to expanding our capabilities and reducing turn-around-time to better serve Honeywell’s HTF7000 operators worldwide2.”
Also at NBAA-BACE, StandardAero announced the opening of the company’s first European-based business aviation parts warehouse in Amsterdam to support operators and strengthen the company’s parts support in the region.
The warehouse operations will stock current parts that support Honeywell TFE731, HTF7000, and CFE738 engines and Honeywell APU parts, with future expansions to include parts to support Lear, Challenger, Global, Gulfstream, Hawker, Falcon and Cessna Citation airframes.
A new MRO Project Management service app called myStandardAero was also announced as a major enhancement to the company’s myStandardAero portal.
The app provides a mobile platform for customers to remotely access and manage MRO events at StandardAero facilities in Georgia, Texas and Illinois. 
Customers will be able to review and approve squawks, communicate directly with specific StandardAero project managers and review work orders from anywhere they can access the internet.
Robust global growth for StandardAero continues to drive hiring of technicians, Drobny said. In 2020, the company has plans to hire 100 technicians for their U.S. business aviation division, and 400 to 500 technicians worldwide.
“We are really excited about our outreach programs, which now extend all the way down to the elementary school level, through middle and high schools to the university level.
This is how we win the battle on hiring,” Drobny said.
Visit StandardAero at Booth C8331 at the Las Vegas Convention Center during NBAA-BACE 2019.
Videos demonstrate the risk of fire fighting flights.
Now that California’s Camp Fire in the northern portion of the state, the deadliest in the state’s history, has been smothered, authorities have begun looking not only at what’s left, but precisely how much was saved thanks to heroic efforts of fire fighters across the state.
Rotor & Wing International says "some, 9,000 firefighters, fixed wing aircraft, ground equipment and 45 helicopters" helped battle fires across the state. Among the aircraft used were Sikorsky S-70 Firehawks, UH-60A Utility Hawks, Boeing CH-47s, Bell UH-1s and Sikorsky Skycranes.
The Camp Fire claimed at least 86 lives and incinerated 153,000 acres of land, including 19,000 buildings of which "14,000 were homes," according to the Wall Street Journal.
Thanks to the headcams worn by many firefighters, a number of videos highlighting the drama of the past three weeks have made their way to the Internet. In this one, a Cal Guard Blackhawk pilot captured a water drop in the Camp Fire
In a recorded rescue in Southern California’s Woolsey blaze (below), the pilot can be heard explaining the rescue flight is “rapidly becoming ugly,” as he flies through visibilities that appear to be low IFR.
The flames in the area north of Malibu consumed some 97,000 acres.
About five minutes into the video, the helicopter crew demonstrates the close coordination necessary between team members in order to keep everyone safe during flight during incredibly dangerous conditions.
“Remember fuel is critical,” the pilot reminds his co-pilot as the helicopter finally touches down to rescue two people and a dog, an event that quickly morphed into three people and two dogs, one a frightened English Mastiff that wasn’t all that keen on a helicopter flight.
The video points out just how close the helicopters were operating to the open flames of the blaze. 
With everyone safe on board, the co-pilot says, “That’s enough excitement for me today.” Me too. Awesome flying.
His new life is perfect for the adventurer in him.
Careers are funny sometimes. Despite conscientious planning, they sometimes turn on a dime and point a person in the most unexpected direction.
Holt Lindenberger completed his professional flight training with ATP in November 2013 and wanted to reward himself for all the hard work it took to earn his commercial, instrument and CFI ratings.
“The training at ATP was pretty fast-paced,” he remembers and the competitive qualifications earned during the program open up countless career options as a pilot.
Lindenberger wanted a diversion, so in October 2014, he headed to Florida and added that single-engine rating following a weekend of fun splashing around in a Cub on floats.
Lindenberger admits he never saw his seaplane rating as anything more than a fun way to blow off some steam.
“I read a surfer magazine that talked about the barefoot pilots of the Maldives,” Lindenberger says.
“I thought that was the coolest thing I’ve ever heard of. These pilots would go out and surf with some professionals and anchor off one of these reef breaks.
They’d just go surf with the guys, and I wondered if there’s a way to get a job like that. That’s the kind of thing I got to do.”
When he returned to reality after his flight training, Lindenberger found himself flying with dozens of students—all of whom wanted to become instructors to gather the flight time needed in order to be eligible for any of the regional airlines ATP works with.
He headed out to a few regional-airline interviews himself but realized something didn’t seem right. 
“I really enjoy flying little airplanes.” So out of the blue, Lindenberger, an adventurer at heart, realized his calling: “I was hooked on seaplanes.”
While most ATP alumni are airline bound, graduates have the flexibility of choosing which direction to take their professional pilot career and Lindenberger started looking for the next step in his flying adventure.
“I ran Google searches trying to figure out how I was going to build some floatplane time. I thought maybe I could earn a multiengine-seaplane rating somehow or go fly in the Maldives.”
His plan included a possible job at Grand Canyon Airways to fly their Twin-Otters and then heading back to school for a multiengine-seaplane rating. But fate or luck—or whatever you might call it—stepped in. 
“One of my buddies found an ad for a pilot at Tropic Ocean Airways in Fort Lauderdale.”
Tropic Ocean operates an all-Cessna fleet of 13 seaplanes, mostly Caravans. The company hired Lindenberger in November 2015.
In short order, he first upgraded to captain on a Cessna 208 on wheels.
“I actually flew right seat on the Caravan at first, which was my first introduction to turbine engines.”
In June 2016, he took command of a Caravan on floats. “I have nothing but good things to say about my time at Tropic Ocean,” Lindenberger says, but after 2? years at Tropic Ocean, he was ready for the next adventure. 
“There are just so many opportunities for pilots these days,” he says.
It’s a small community of seaplane pilots who possess any significant turbine experience, and Lindenberger quickly realized: “Seaplane jobs are paying pretty well.”
In May 2018, Lindenberger went to work for Tailwind Air LLC in Westchester, New York, as their primary on-demand Caravan floatplane pilot. 
The company also operates a number of jet aircraft. 
He’s now based near his airplane at Long Island’s MacArthur Airport and lives just five minutes from the airport. 
“Primarily, I fly people to the Hamptons from the 23rd Street seaport in Manhattan, where there’s only room for one airplane on the dock at a time. 
Some days, I’ve had as many as 10 airplanes waiting ahead of me to dock, when there also might be helicopters circling above.”
In New York, the Caravan is the perfect airplane because a trip from 23rd Street to the Hamptons only takes 35 minutes.
“On a bad-traffic day, it could take someone five hours to make the drive,” Lindenberger says.
“I get to see all those cars backed up on the roads going out to the Hamptons. I hate traffic myself, but you gotta credit the traffic for keeping me employed.”
Lindenberger says Tailwind “flies charters to Maine and Connecticut and sometimes the Adirondacks.
So there’s quite a variety of flying.
On any given day, I might depart an airport VFR, go to the East River, and fly some of the helicopter routes down to the exclusions zones for a river landing.”
He says it’s some of the choppiest water you’ll ever see flying floats—at least in the United States—because there’s always half a dozen ferries just ripping up the river nonstop.
“That means 2-foot waves all over town. Flying the river in general is challenging because of the confined area, high-traffic airspace and busy waterways.
The flying keeps your skills sharp across the board, because it’s probably one of the most well-rounded flying experiences you can have.
Flight planning means you might have to reference sectionals, helicopter charts, low-IFR en route charts, satellite imagery and marine depth charts—and you might have to make a few calls for local knowledge.
I love it all. Even in peak season when we are flying 14 legs in a day.”
Inbound back to 23rd Street, “I fly over La Guardia at 1,500 feet and then to the north tip of Roosevelt Island, where I descend to the join the East River exclusion at 1,100 feet.
A lot of times, you go from a perfectly sunny day to IFR when the marine layers move in. 
Then I’m shooting a special VFR, and it gets pretty interesting.”
He says, with certain wind directions, there’s a ton of turbulence off the buildings, “so it keeps me on my toes, even on calm days. But for me, it’s fun to stay engaged.”
Lindenberger spends spring and summer flying around New York, but just to keep things interesting, Tailwind sends him and the Caravan back to his old neighborhood in Florida during fall and winter to fly the Caribbean.
“I’ve got a pretty good situation, and I’m happy with it,” he says. And what about those fancy jets Tailwind’s operating?
 “They’ve thrown those out there to me. But I do like my quality of life and my experiences. So right now, I’m enjoying being the seaplane guy.”
Helicopter safety should focus on seven key life-saving actions.
With half of 2019 behind and another six months to go, the U.S. Helicopter Safety Team (USHST) says the U.S. helicopter industry is experiencing a year of fatal accidents.
The USHST is calling on helicopter operators, pilots, instructors and mechanics to rely on safety basics and place a stronger emphasis on identifying and managing risk.
For the first six months of 2019, the U.S. helicopter industry has experienced 15 fatal accidents with 27 fatalities, on track to match 2013, when 30 fatal accidents occurred.
However, since July is usually a month with a high number of accidents, the industry also is at risk to reach the total from 2008, when there were 35 fatal helicopter accidents.
To help slow this fatal accident trend, the USHST wants pilots, instructors and others with a stake in helicopter safety to focus on seven key actions that will save lives.
Carry enough fuel for unexpected situations.
Ignoring minimum fuel reserve requirements is generally the result of overconfidence, a lack of flight planning, or deliberately ignoring regulations.
Conduct an adequate preflight inspection. 
Use a checklist and a final walk around to determine the condition of an aircraft prior to flight.
Post-flight inspections can also identify issues prior to the next flight.
Recognize the Potency of OTC Medications.
Pilots frequently underestimate the effects of OTC medications and the impairment caused by these sedating drugs.
In spite of specific federal regulations and education efforts regarding flying while impaired, over-the-counter medication usage by pilots remains a factor in 10 to 13 percent of aircraft accidents.
Flying at low altitudes to avoid clouds or bad weather is dangerous and can result in collisions with terrain or obstacles such as wires and towers.
VFR Flight in IMC can be fatal. 
This is the all-too-often result of flying too low.
It is even more dangerous if the pilot is not instrument qualified or is unwilling to believe what the gauges are indicating and an inability to recognize deteriorating conditions.
This "disease" clouds the vision and impairs judgment by causing a fixation on the original goal with a total disregard for any alternative courses of action.
Don't be Afraid to Divert, Turn Around or Land.
Always make sure you have an alternative course of action available should the weather conditions preclude the completion of the flight as planned.
In other words, don't be afraid to land and live.
Land a backcountry flying job, no matter if it's nature or a mission calling you.
Bush pilots operate in remote areas worldwide with little operational support.
Career success and survival require excellent backcountry flying skills, self-reliance and resourcefulness, and above all, the right attitude, say bush pilots Glen Ferguson and Keith Saulnier.
They represent the two bush-pilot career paths you might consider: missionary aviation and commercial operations.
Saulnier owns Georgian Bay Airways in Parry Sound, Ontario, which offers a Career Bush Pilot Program, and Ferguson is CEO of the International Association of Missionary Aviation (IAMA), whose 60-some member organizations include mission-aviation fellowships and colleges with mission-aviation programs.
Here are their tips for becoming a bush pilot.
The commercial fleet ranges from Piper Cubs through Cessna Caravans (with many on floats), along with vintage de Havilland Beavers and piston and turbine Otters.
Taildraggers are widely used.
Missionary aviation "is moving to turbine aircraft" because of the declining availability of avgas, says Ferguson.
This means you'll find more Quest Kodiaks, Pilatus Porters and PC-12s, and Caravans.
 "When airstrips get too short, then we put in helicopters."
Missionary aviation typically requires a minimum of 500 hours of flight experience, commercial and instrument pilot's certificates, and a high-performance endorsement, as well as an A&P license. 
With the mission fleet moving to heavier, tricycle-gear aircraft, a tailwheel endorsement is no longer mandatory.
Requirements among commercial operators vary, but include a commercial pilot license and an endorsement or rating in whatever type of platform you'll operate--and experience flying in the area you'll be working.
Commercial bush-pilot training is available through flight-training facilities offering instruction in float, tailwheel, tundra tire, or ski and glacier operations, in a number of locations around North America.
U.S. pilots trained and certified in Canada can receive FAA approval through a Foreign License Validation Certificate (FLVC).
More than a dozen colleges and universities have ab initio mission-aviation programs.
To help offset the high program costs, schools are investigating a forgivable loan-assistance program that writes off part of the loan for each year flying overseas, Ferguson says.
"You have to start at an entry-level position, and in the bush that usually entails a lot of loading and unloading of airplanes," says Saulnier. 
 "Very rarely will people jump into the left seat in a medium-size aircraft in any category."
Additional practical skills enhance a pilot's employability.
"If you're a wrench [an A&P], a plumber or an electrician, or a computer programmer who can help put up a website or post content on social media, you'll make a better [job] candidate," Saulnier says.
Clearly, any skills that contribute to the greater good of working in a remote location can advance a pilot's resume.
Missionary-aviation organizations conduct 10-day technical-evaluation courses to determine an applicant's piloting and mechanic skills—and attitude. 
"You don't want the bad apple who only wants to fly airplanes," said Ferguson.
"They [pilots] need to plug in to the bigger mission."
Those accepted will return for orientation and to polish their skills before posting overseas.
Missionary aviators support a broad range of faith-based objectives that often involve helping isolated people in remote locations. 
Pilots and A&Ps operate under duty limits, including hours and days off.
They may serve in their assigned location for four years and take one year off.
"Then most people go back to the same place or move on to somewhere else, and spend another four years on location," Ferguson said.
Commercial bush pilots perform "a lot of camp work" which includes hauling supplies and people to remote sites.
Work might support tourism, resource industries or public agencies, and it can be seasonal.
Salaries for commercial bush pilots vary widely, depending on the company, the job, and the degree of hazard.
A starting bush pilot salary might be $2,500 per month, while more seasoned pilots operating larger airplanes can earn $6,000 to $8,000 per month or more, Saulnier says.
Average mean wage for commercial pilots of nonscheduled operators is about $85,000, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Missionary pilots fund their own expenses and salary, an amount typically ranging between $4,000 and $6,000 per month, through self-developed donor networks.
"For me it's when I see changed lives," says Ferguson.
Adds Saulnier: "Absolute freedom. There's still romance associated with our side of the aviation industry."
Add in the opportunity to fly close to nature's glory, and a truly unique aviation career awaits the pilot who seeks it.
Learn more about bush pilot training and careers here and here.
Also, contact the Recreational Aviation Foundation for more information on flying in the backcountry.
Ongoing demand makes aerial flame suppression a hot zone for pilots.
While we don't have hard figures on their ranks or the number of jobs that exist, demand for aerial firefighter pilots is increasing, industry experts say.
"There are opportunities, but it's not very well-organized," says Dean Talley, an air tanker captain and board member of the Associated Aerial Firefighters.
In fact, operators "are having a lot of trouble filling positions," with retirements creating vacancies and brisk airline hiring draining the already-small applicant pool for aviation firefighters, the former Coast Guard and ag pilot says. The problem continues today.
Federal agencies employ some aerial firefighter pilots, but most work under seasonal contracts for companies the agencies hire for fire protection.
The U.S. Forest Service, the largest federal contractor of aerial firefighting services, also has 52 full-time pilots, according to an agency spokesperson.
The Bureau of Indian Affairs, Bureau of Land Management and National Park Service also contract aerial firefighting services, as do individual states and agencies within states.
Both fixed- and rotor-wing aircraft are used.
Fixed-wing platforms range from single-engine air tankers (SEATs) often adapted from crop-dusters, such as the Thrush 510 and Air Tractor 802 Fire Boss, to larger tankers (more than 3,000-gallon capacity), including jet transports repurposed for dropping massive firefighting loads.
However, rotorcraft from a host of municipal agencies actually dominate the aerial fleet, though firefighting is typically just one of these helicopters' multipurpose roles.
Some pilots, rather than fire bombing, fly the King Airs or OV-10 Broncos that often serve as the observation platform for the forward air controller who directs the fire attack.
Pilot backgrounds are diverse, including military, bush and airline flying, but tailwheel and low-level flying experience — the latter over terrain — are typical requisites.
“It does require a natural ability at flying the airplane,” says Cliff Hale, chief pilot and vice president of flight operations at Global SuperTanker Services.
“There’s no automation that’s going to help you, so if you’re the type of pilot who relies heavily on automation, it’s probably not the place for you.”
Hale’s company owns and operates Global Supertanker, a 747 converted in 2016 into the world’s largest fire bomber, with a 19,000-plus-gallon capacity.
To prepare for a platform like this, “Experience in underpowered, small airplanes is actually preferred,” says Hale. “That’s where you really learn this stuff.”
With no standard training program for the profession, one career path into the hot zone is serving as a pilot in an observation aircraft, then transitioning into a SEAT or the right seat of a larger tanker.
The average annual salary range for a Forest Service pilot is $73,600 to $113,800.
Contract SEAT pilots have traditionally been paid by flight time, “so income is much more fluid” but can be “in the hundreds of thousands” of dollars in a busy season, says Talley.
However, the SEAT fleet has been evolving to a fee-per-season contract, with “minor incentives for extra hours,” providing more stable earnings.
Captains on a large air tanker might earn from $100,000 in the first season to $360,000 for a senior captain, with the seasonal hiring arrangement an attraction for many firefighters.
 “A lot of these pilots like their winters off,” says Hale. But with demand for such services in the Southern Hemisphere growing, and the extended fire season in North America, it’s becoming a full-time job. 
“California just had its largest fire ever, and it was in the month of December,” notes Hale, whose company has four pilots.
“The industry is moving toward full-time [employment], with schedules of time on and off on a year-round basis.”
Oklahoma City streetcars could soon be available for rolling weddings, receptions and other private events.
Embark staff is working on a streetcar charter policy to present to the city's transit authority, Jesse Rush, the streetcar manager, said Friday.
Charters are offered on systems including Cincinnati and New Orleans, where options include vistas along the riverfront and trips through the French Market.
Rush said Embark recently hosted a streetcar charter event for the Greater Oklahoma City Chamber, the city's leading business organization, and used the occasion to test charter possibilities and "see how that will play out."
Results were encouraging, he said, with the chartered streetcar making the downtown loop on time and no interruption of regular service.
Rush said a streetcar could be chartered, as an example, by a group going to dinner.
The streetcar could drop the group off near its restaurant, stand by on a side track, and return at an agreed upon time to return the group to its hotel.
Charters could become part of the package offered out-of-town convention-goers once the MAPS 3 convention center opens in about a year.
According to the Cincinnati Bell Connector website, a Cincinnati streetcar can be chartered for up to four hours at a base rate of $1,350. Each additional hour is $310.
Both Cincinnati and New Orleans allow catering but prohibit glass containers and alcoholic beverages. Both suggest an on-board limit of 75 people.
New Orleans promotes charters for parties, corporate events and city tours; times on the five routes range from an hour to an hour and 45 minutes.
Rates start at $1,000 and include the opportunity to decorate the streetcar before the charter begins.
Rush told the Central Oklahoma Transportation and Parking Authority on Friday that Embark expects to have a charter policy ready soon for trustees to review.
Figures reveal that MTA ridership has increased across subways, buses, LIRR and Metro-North, with on-time performance improving across the board.
The New York Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) has announced figures that show ridership increases on subways, buses, Long Island Rail Road and Metro-North Railroad.
Average weekday ridership on the subway in September 2019 was up 4.5 per cent over the prior year to 5.77 million, while local bus ridership of 2.25 million represents a 1.5 per cent increase over the previous year. 
Long Island Rail Road ridership increased 2 per cent in September 2019, boosting year-to-date ridership by 2.4 per cent.
Metro-North Railroad’s ridership increased 1 per cent in September 2019 and has risen 0.6 per cent year-to-date.
 Despite the increase in ridership across mass transit modes, traffic on MTA bridges and tunnels also rose to be 0.6 per cent higher than the prior year in August.
The subway system is carrying nearly 250,000 more trips each weekday than it was a year earlier, while buses are carrying 34,000 more trips per average weekday.
The MTA’s commuter railroads together have carried nearly 2 million more people in 2019 through September.
“These numbers are the result of a tremendous amount of hard work and dedication,” said MTA Chairman, Patrick J. Foye.
“The MTA’s top priority is increasing the reliability of the system and our workforce has been focused on identifying and fixing track defects, fixing signals and switches, and overhauling train cars and buses at a faster rate than at any time in memory.
We are also rethinking how we communicate with our customers – and as a result of all of these improvements it is clear New Yorkers are taking notice.”
Weekday subway on-time performance was 82.7 per cent in September 2019 – the fourth month that is has been above 80 per cent in five years.
The SAP, launched by Governor Andrew M. Cuomo and then-MTA Chairman Joe Lhota, has provided a surge of additional union personnel, outside contractors, and new tools and methods for the maintaining and improving the system.
Speakers from Streamax Technology Co Ltd, Shezhen Bus Group and SAIS Trasporti discuss how operators can meet new regulations and policies on road safety, how they can better manage risk on the roads to protect their fleets, how we can obtain the full picture of driver behaviour aside from traditional ECO data and much more.
Andy Byford, New York City Transit President, said: “Together, the work of the Save Safe Seconds campaign and the assistance we got from the Subway Action Plan have helped us achieve performance numbers unseen in some time and we look forward to improving our numbers even more in the months ahead.”
LIRR’s year-to-date on-time performance of 92.6 per cent through September 30 is 2.4 percentage points higher than it was over the same time in 2018.
The LIRR has scheduled 1.3 per cent more trains in 2019 through September 30 than it had over that time frame in 2018, yet experienced a 0.4 percentage point increase in trips completed, to 99.4 per cent.
Trains operating with fewer cars than their normal length decreased 23.6 per cent and trains’ mechanical reliability increased 7.4 per cent, with trains travelling 193,667 miles between experiencing a mechanical failure as of August 31.
Track circuit failures in 2019, have reduced to 42 through September 30, down by a third from 64 during the prior year.
LIRR President, Phil Eng, said: “We remain focused on balancing state of good repair and an unprecedented amount of capital work to expand and modernise our railroad that will provide a better customer experience for this generation, and for generations to come.”
Metro-North’s year-to-date on-time performance of 94.3 per cent through September 30 is 3.7 percentage points higher than it was over the same time in 2018.
Metro-North has scheduled 142 more trains in 2019 through September 30 than it had over that time frame in 2018, yet experienced a 0.3 percentage point increase in trips completed, to 99.8 per cent.
The percentage of trains operating at their full length this year has increased 0.7 percentage points East of Hudson through September 30, to 99.4 per cent, while the improvement West of Hudson was even more pronounced, rising 1.2 percentage points to 98.9 per cent.
Trains’ mechanical reliability surged 63 per cent, with trains traveling 244,074 miles between experiencing a mechanical failure, up from 149,683 a year prior.
Delays related to switch and signal problems have decreased to 741 through September 30, down by more than half from 1,800 experienced during the prior year.
“Metro-North’s Way Ahead programme is providing a road map for the railroad’s future, where we concentrate on increasing train service safety and reliability,” said Catherine Rinaldi, President of Metro-North Railroad. 
“These statistics come roughly after our first year of fulfilling the Way Ahead plan, and all signs point to even more improvement going forward.
I thank the hard work and dedication of the entire Metro-North workforce for bringing these results.”
Amid mounting calls for a more reliable statewide public transit system, state lawmakers and transportation experts are making a push for electricity-powered transportation solutions this legislative session.
Oct. 18--Amid mounting calls for a more reliable statewide public transit system, state lawmakers and transportation experts are making a push for electricity-powered transportation solutions this legislative session. 
Lawmakers on the Joint Committee on Transportation held a hearing on Tuesday to discuss a rash of bills looking to electrify buses, expand electric charging stations and require that the registration of future vehicles in the state be exclusively for 'zero emissions vehicles.'
The proposed legislation would do everything from require transit agencies and school bus operators be fully electrified by 2035, to setting a timeline for a complete transition to zero-emission vehicles by 2038.
"I think what people are excited about is this technology presents an opportunity to meet our greenhouse gas reduction goals," said Matthew Casale, transportation campaign director at MASSPIRG.
"It's becoming increasingly clear that if we're going to meet those goals, we need to accelerate public transportation electrification."
While Massachusetts has consistently ranked ahead of the rest of the nation in clean energy efforts, experts say the state's transition to cleaner transportation solutions has been lagging in part due to a lack of resources.
"The primary issue with electric buses is that they cost more upfront, and the MBTA is broke," said Daniel Gatti, senior transportation analyst with the Union of Concerned Scientists.
"So it's challenging for the MBTA to take on big new expensive projects, and bring new resources to them."
In his proposed $18 billion transportation bond bill, Gov. Charlie Baker has set aside $330 million for Regional Transit Authorities for new fleets and facilities, including electric busses; and $32 million has been included in the supplemental budget for electric vehicle programs, according to Gatti. 
That $32 million is devoted to rebates for customers who purchase electric vehicles.
Gatti said the movement toward electric transportation is required if the state wants to reduce its carbon footprint by 25 percent of 1990s levels by 2020 -- a level required by the Global Warming Solutions Act, a federal law the state adopted years ago.
By 2050, the law mandates a reduction of emissions by 80 percent.
"Transportation is the largest source of pollution," Gatti said.
"I think getting a handle on transportation solutions ... is something that people are increasingly aware is vital for the state to meet its 25 percent reduction goal by next year."
About 42 percent of statewide greenhouse gas emissions come from the transportation sector, according to MassDOT.
The safety technology now operates on Far Rockaway, Long Beach, Oyster Bay and West Hempstead branches.
Select trains operating on the Long Island Rail Road’s (LIRR) Far Rockaway, Long Beach, Oyster Bay and West Hempstead Branches have begun operating with Positive Train Control (PTC), according to LIRR President Phillip Eng. 
PTC is a signal system enhancement that reduces the potential for human error to cause specific types of train collisions and derailments. 
The branches have become the latest segments of the LIRR to be operating under PTC. The system was commissioned on the Port Washington Branch on Dec. 17, 2018.
The segment of the Montauk Branch between Babylon and Patchogue received the technology in April and the Hempstead Branch received it in August. 
As a result of this progress, 65 route miles are in PTC operation, or 21.5 percent of the LIRR’s PTC system. 
“The successful and on-time launch of Positive Train Control on these branches continues our forward progress on this critical initiative,” Eng said.
“Meeting this milestone reinforces my confidence that we will complete systemwide roll-out of Positive Train Control on time by the end of the 2020.” 
PTC is a federally mandated safety system that is designed to enhance railroad safety by protecting against the potential for human error to contribute to train-to-train collisions, trains traveling into zones where railroad employees are working on tracks, or derailments caused by a train traveling too fast into a curve or into a misaligned switch.
It builds upon existing LIRR systems such as in-cab signaling and automatic speed enforcement at critical curves and bridges.
These safety measures already offer some of the most substantial functions of PTC to LIRR customers. 
LIRR and the Metro-North Railroad are adhering to an aggressive segment-by-segment implementation schedule that puts them on paths to complete the roll-out of PTC across their entire networks before the Federal deadline of Dec. 31, 2020. 
What the New York Daily News calls a "group of powerful New York lawmakers" wants to see "non-essential" helicopter flights over downtown Manhattan come to a grinding halt.
The action comes just a week after an Augusta 109E owned by American Continental Properties crashed onto the roof of a skyscraper shortly after it took off from the 34th Street Heliport.
Weather at the time of the accident was reported as very poor with visibility of about ? mile beneath a 400-foot ceiling.
Local New York lawmakers wrote a letter to the FAA’s acting administrator Daniel Elwell claiming helicopter flights pose an “intolerable risk to the public.” 
The group wants Elwell and the agency to begin posting temporary flight restrictions over Manhattan.
CBS News in New York reported, “there have been at least 30 helicopter accidents over Manhattan since 1983.”
Rep. Carolyn Maloney said she would hold the agency accountable and vowed to create legislation if that’s what it takes to reduce the number of flights.
She said she doesn’t believe that executive travel and tourist flights would qualify as “essential.”
The Daily News reported the letter to Elwell warned, "It could have been far worse had the helicopter crashed into the Midtown streets below or into a building," noting the crash happened near Trump Tower, the president's private residence.
Learning to fly a rotorcraft or helicopter opens up flying into places that other aircraft can’t reach.
As a professional helicopter pilot, you can fly for rescue and emergency medical services (EMS) or executive transport, among many options.
The rotorcraft category of aircraft includes helicopters, as well as autogyros and gyrodynes .
You're most likely to begin training in a light, single-engine piston-powered helicopter, for the same reasons that a person learns to fly fixed-wing aircraft in a single-engine airplane: cost, availability, and simplicity.
Common training rotorcraft include the Schweizer 300 and the Robinson R-22. You'll start by pursuing a private pilot certificate with the rotorcraft category rating, and then can progress to obtain a commercial pilot certificate in order to perform work for hire.
You may also go for an instrument rating, which allows you to fly the helicopter in the clouds or low visibility, or a flight instructor certificate, which lets you train other pilots.
In order to fly large turbine transport helicopters, you'll need an airline transport pilot certificate.
Rome is the first Italian city to debut the bike-sharing scheme, with 700 bicycles appearing across the city, and a further 2,800 planned to be deployed over the coming weeks
Rome’s mayor, Virginia Raggi, has announced the launch of bike-sharing service JUMP for the Italian capital.
Rome is the first city in Italy to debut the bike-sharing scheme, with 3,500 bicycles planned to be deployed over the coming weeks.
The red pedal-assisted bicycles are fitted with GPS tracking and a shopping-basket at the front. The bikes can be found in the Uber app, which allows the user to locate the nearest bike and then unlockit with a pin that is provided in the app. 
The cost of hire is 20 cents per minute with a 50 cent charge to release the bicycle. The bikes can also be put on hold for up to 30 minutes.
The scheme covers a large area of Rome, from the centre to EUR, Copped?, Monteverde Nuovo and Fleming.
The bikes can be parked across the city in safe areas but cannot be parked along the Lungotevere river, in a bid to avoid damage, and vehicles parked along the river will incur a fee.
The arrival of Uber Jump has come a year after Gobee.bike took its bikes out of Rome and Europe, after claiming that 60 per cent of its European fleet was vandalised, stolen or dumped in rivers.
Taiwanese yard Johnson Yachts has give a construction update on its first “entry level superyacht”, the 21.3 metre Johnson 70.
The yacht is now entering the final stages of construction with the installation of interiors now underway. 
It is set for completion for early next year and is scheduled to launch in March.
Designed by Bill Dixon of Dixon Yacht Design, the customisable yacht is available with a skylounge or open fly bridge and in a three or four cabin layout.
The first flybridge has begun construction and will feature interiors by Design Unlimited, which will include a mix of textures and materials for a stylish and comfortable environment.
The galley sits forward on the main deck while an L-shaped sofa sits opposite accompanied by a large dining table and loose chairs for easy, large group dining.
The main saloon social area will feature a built-in chaise longue and loveseat while wide sliding doors will provide access to the cockpit.
There is also an option here to add a fishing cockpit, a feature which led the yard to previously describe the Johnson 70 as “truly a blank canvas”.
Other features include davits for deploying the tender and an al fresco galley complete with a grilling station for outdoor entertaining.
The yacht is available in either a three cabin or four cabin layout for a maximum of eight guests in four double ensuite cabins.
The full beam master sits amidships and is equipped with a desk, dressing table and large walk-in wardrobe area.
The yacht has a 5.6 metre beam and is equipped with a pair of CAT C18 1015HP engines for a max speed of 25 knots.
Johnson Yachts general manager Peter Chang said, “With the design and engineering of the Johnson 70 – together with Design Unlimited and Bill Dixon - we have a yacht designed to be versatile.
"We want to create a new line of yachts that sets the trend rather than follows it.”
It came after the yard revealed new details and renderings of its new flagship, the Johnson 115 at last year's Fort Lauderdale International Boat Show.
The yard’s first tri-deck yacht has also been designed by Bill Dixon and will accommodate either 10 or 12 guests across five or six staterooms.
Jaguar’s i-Pace electric crossover won Car of the Year a few months ago – just – after an unprecedented tie.
The Jag scored 250 points from the jury of 60 European motoring journalists – the same points total achieved by the Alpine A110 sports car.
However, according to the Oxford Dictionary, the i-Pace cannot be classified as a car, because the current definition of a car is ‘A road vehicle, typically with four wheels, powered by an internal combustion engine and able to carry a small number of people.’
With that in mind, Jaguar has now made a formal request to update the definition to include additional powertrains – including the electric, lithium-ion drivetrain used by the i-Pace. 
A lot of time and thought is put into the name of any new vehicle or technology to ensure it is consumer friendly, so it’s surprising to see that the definition of the car is a little outdated,' said David Browne, head of Jaguar Land Rover’s naming committee.
We are therefore inviting the Oxford English Dictionary and the Oxford Dictionaries to update its online classification to reflect the shift from traditional internal combustion engines towards more sustainable powertrains.'
The victor was decided by a countback of the number of jurors who placed each car top of their list, with the Jaguar scoring 18 first places compared with 16 for the Alpine. In an incredibly close race, the Kia Ceed took the third place on the podium, with 247 points. 
Receiving the award, Jaguar’s design director Ian Callum said: ‘An electric car has won the award [again], and this is the future for the automotive sector. And it’s the first time Jaguar has won the Car of the Year award.’ 
It’s the third time an electric car has won the gong, with the Nissan Leaf triumphing in 2011 and the Opel-Vauxhall Ampera coming top the following year.
The award will give a welcome dose of good news to Jaguar and sister brand Land Rover: the company announced a ?90m financial loss for the third quarter of 2018 and is in the process of cutting 4500 jobs, as it seeks to save ?2.5billion and battle back to profitability.
Jaguar Land Rover has been rocked by a contraction in its Chinese sales, Brexit and the flight from diesel engines in European markets.
Seven cars were shortlisted for the award, from 38 cars launched in 2018 that were eligible.
After the Jaguar, Alpine and Kia, the Ford Focus came in fourth with 235 points, with the Citro?n C5 Aircross (210 points), Peugeot 508 (192 points) and Mercedes-Benz A-class (116 points) completing the grid.
Car of the Year is decided by a jury comprising 60 journalists from 23 different countries across Europe.
CAR’s editor-in-chief, Phil McNamara, is on the jury. Each juror has 25 points to distribute among the seven cars, with a juror having to give his or her top-ranked car at least a point more than the next favourite car on the shortlist.
That’s how the organisers can pick a winner in the event of a tie.
It’s a democractic and transparent process, with each juror having to submit short written testimony to explain their votes.
All the verdicts are available at caroftheyear.org.
Transit leaders said the changes will make the transit system a more convenient and viable option for everyone.
Bloomington Transit officials are looking for feedback on a plan to realign and cut back on some bus routes’ hours of operation.
Zac Huneck, planning and special projects manager with Bloomington Transit, said the changes will make the transit system a more convenient and viable option for everyone.
Many of the recommendations are from a Bloomington Transit and IU Campus Bus Route Optimization Study.
Residents are invited to provide feedback on the proposed changes by filling out an online survey, attending upcoming public input sessions or by calling 812-336-7433.
Huneck said he expects adjustments would be made based on the feedback received ahead of implementation.
Service changes will be finalized in early 2020, and the changes will take effect next fall.
“We’re looking to make the bus system work better for everyone, so community feedback is vital to the process,” Huneck said.
Currently, most Bloomington Transit bus routes stop running around 11 p.m.
Under the proposed system redesign, six of the 12 proposed routes will cease all operations after 7 p.m. 
Huneck said consultants recommended reducing those hours to redirect resources between 6 a.m. and 6 p.m., during peak ridership.
Huneck said it’s only within the past decade that Bloomington Transit expanded to have evening service to 11 p.m. 
That was made possible, he said, by grants from the Federal Transit Administration’s Job Access and Return Commute grant program.
“This was a program designed during the recession to facilitate public transit connections for employees getting off work at around the end of typical second shifts,” Huneck said.
 “We’ve been able to stretch that grant funding until now, but it has since run out, so that is part of our consideration in if we should continue to provide that late night service.”
He said, while routes tend to move fewer people in the evening, those who ride late are often those who depend on public transit the most.
He said transit officials are concerned about the impact those proposed changes might have on late-evening riders.
As part of the recommendations, consultants suggest both realigning and ending hours of operation around 7 p.m. for proposed routes 1, 4, 5, 12, 14, 40.
One proposed change to the transit system would provide service to new areas, including the Ivy Tech Community College campus west of Bloomington.
Huneck said providing service to Ivy Tech has been a long-time request from transit riders.
 He said extending service to the college campus also presents an opportunity to serve those who work at a number of westside businesses, such as Cook Medical’s global headquarters.
Even though it is a highly requested service, Huneck said Bloomington Transit is currently only allowed to operate within city boundaries.
He added an amendment to the operating ordinance would be needed for Bloomington Transit to provide service outside city limits.
At the moment, Area 10 on Agency Rural Transit provides service to the Ivy Tech campus.
Huneck said Bloomington Transit route 3 transit riders can now transfer to the Rural Transit bus to reach Ivy Tech.
Consultants also propose providing service to the new Indiana University Health Bloomington Regional Academic Health Center along the Ind. 45/46 Bypass.
The $557 million project is currently under construction and slated to be completed in 2020-21.
Proposed public transit access would use both Pete Ellis Drive and Range Road — which was recently renamed East Discovery Parkway — and the proposed hospital access at 14th Street and the Ind. 45/46 Bypass, according to the proposed route.
Another recommended service route would take more transit riders to the area around Walmart and the Social Security Administration Office.
While the goal of developing a public transit system is not to directly serve any one business, Huneck said consultants viewed that area as a major shopping destination for many residents.
He said a guiding principle for transit officials is to create a self-contained route that provides route riders with access to a diversity of destinations such as work, home and grocery stores.
Adding a third route to one of the county’s major shopping centers, he said, would also make that location an important transfer center to other areas.
Proposed changes also seek to make it easier for riders to get to their destinations faster by making routes more direct.
Huneck said for a bus service to be competitive against other forms of transportation, it has to be able to get its riders from point A to B in a certain amount of time.
A number of routes were realigned with this concept in mind.
However, Huneck said a consequence of creating more direct routes is that buses would avoid deviations into neighborhoods and shopping centers in exchange for a more streamlined service.
For example, he said consultants proposed eliminating buses sent directly into the Park Ridge East neighborhood.
Another proposal will eliminate buses turning into the Whitehall Crossing Shopping Center.
The challenge, Huneck said, is finding the right balance between providing adequate coverage and speedy bus service.
He said transit officials are sensitive to the fact that there are riders who, due to mobility or other issues, could be impacted by these proposed changes.
That is why he strongly encourages the public to provide their feedback.
“We are not looking to create any new barriers,” Huneck said.
Transit officials are also proposing eliminating duplicative and underperforming routes.
Huneck said they identified areas where the Bloomington Transit service may be better suited as a supplement to the IU campus bus service.
In addition, he said the proposal suggests combining some routes whose coverage area overlaps.
For example, he said the proposed route 7, which would provide service from south of Bloomington to the IU campus via Walnut Street Pike and Henderson Street, combines elements of the current routes 1 South and 7.
Huneck said they are also recommending the elimination of route 8, which currently serves people living in Hyde Park, Stands, High Street, Park Ridge, 10th Street and Pete Ellis Drive areas and along Sare Road, and have two new routes pick up the area it alone used to cover.
He said the number of riders using that particular bus route has declined to around 10 riders per hour.
He added that is right at the threshold used to determine whether a route is being productive.
He said while it would be eliminated, the area will still be serviced by two other routes.
Why are they doing this?Huneck said one reason Bloomington Transit is proposing making changes to its transit route system is to improve ridership.
Public transit systems — both locally and across the country — have seen a decline in ridership since 2014, said Huneck.
In Bloomington, he said the number of transit users declined about 5% a year since that time.
“One of the big factors (of the proposed system changes) is to reverse that ridership decline,” Huneck said.
The proliferation of ride-share programs such as Uber and Lyft, Huneck said, is one possible reason why transit systems has seen a decline in ridership.
He said, when gas prices remain relatively low, many still prefer to drive themselves rather than wait on public transit.
On the local level, Huneck said speculate that a decline in ridership is may, in some ways, be impacted by the increased downtown development in recent years.
He added Indiana University students make up around 70% of ridership, and more students are living downtown in areas that provide better walkability options.
He said another reason for updating the transit network is to ensure bus routes reflect the community’s growth in the past few years.
Huneck said the current routes were designed two decades ago.
Huneck said the proposed changes are intended to be a budget-neutral.
The founders of superyacht design studio Harrison Eidsgaard have dissected the DNA of a Heesen-built superyacht.
Speaking to BOAT International, Ben Harrison and Peder Eidsgaard reflected on their eight year working partnership with the Dutch yard, which began with the 51 metre Irisha.
The fully custom designed superyacht Irisha was delivered in 2018.
Speaking about their first collaboration with Heesen, Harrison said: “We very much enjoyed the whole experience, from the first hand sketches on a piece of paper through to the delivery of the yacht three years later.”
Eidsgaard added that the process demonstrated “what an efficient organisation” Heesen is.
“The exterior was created from our sketches into a 3D model extremely fast and there were no changes from that until the build,” he said.
Irisha demonstrates the key DNA of Heesen’s standout superyachts with a “fast, elegant hull,” Eidsgaard said.
“It’s clearly a fast boat, all of them aluminium - this makes them stand out in the size range.”
Harrison added that the interiors on board were indicative of Heesen’s “high standards”.
“Heesen do a lot of the interior fit out themselves and that’s really the fully custom bespoke element that you get with a Heesen.
I think you can always tell the quality of the fittings, it is of a very high standard.”
Gulfstream announced the G700 last night, the Savannah, Georgia-based airframer's new entry into the ultra-long-range aircraft category—a model clearly aimed at Bombardier's Global 7500. 
Also announced were two new fleet operators of the G700 that will help keep the assembly lines busy until 2023, the next delivery opportunity.
Flexjet will serve as the G700's launch customer in the U.S., while Qatar Airways serves a similar role overseas.
The cabin of the G700 is long–nearly 57 feet, excluding the baggage area–a number that bests the G650ER by four feet and offers operators the option for five distinct living areas, or four if they choose a Part 135-compliant crew rest station.
When finished, the G700’s cabin is 6 feet 3 inches tall and 8 feet 2 inches wide.
The G700 will carry as many as 19, while berthing up to 10.
Powered by two new Rolls-Royce Pearl 700 engines specifically designed for this new Gulfstream, the G700 will deliver a maximum cruise speed of Mach 0.925.
Gulfstream said much of the thinking behind the new G700 emerged from the positive technological and customer experiences derived while created the G500 and G600, although the 700 includes plenty of brand-new technology that will amaze both the cockpit crew and passengers in the cabin.
The G700 is also expected to also share a common type rating with the earlier 500 and 600.
The G700 interior is sure to delight owners and operators with a private stateroom option that includes four large G650-size windows, as well as a private shower to freshen up after a journey that might extend to the G700’s maximum range of 7,500 nm range. 
The rest of the cabin is inundated with more of those large G650-style windows totaling 10 on each side of the fuselage.
The cabin uses 100 percent fresh air all the time and offers four complete zone controls to moderate the environment.
At 41,000 feet, the G700 holds the cabin down to 3,300 feet while at 51,000 feet, the cabin climbs only another 1,500 feet.
What passengers will really enjoy in the G700 cabin is the spectacular audio system that includes no speakers.
New to this airplane Gulfstream’s 3D audio system that actually turns the sidewalls into speakers capable of delivering rich high-frequency sound and impressive, wall-shaking base as near to surround sound as most people have ever experienced. 
The new Gulfstream includes a host of new technologies for passengers to control their media experience using their own devices, as well as cleverly concealed plugs to charge everything.
Another important part of the new G700’s cabin is a galley counter that stretches more than 10 feet in length and to allow more than one person at a time to prepare meals or snacks.
The airplane includes special rear-cabin table that stretches across the aisle to seat six but requires no external table leaf.
Everyone will enjoy the G700’s cabin lighting that’s offered in two versions.
The HD uses thousands of bright white, soft white and amber LEDs to set the color of the cabin temperature, while the advanced Ultra HD system uses 20,000 LEDs and offers 68,000 different possible light settings. 
Best of all, either of the two LED lighting system are capable of emulating natural light from sunrise to sunset that can also be correlated to the passenger’s natural circadian rhythm, no matter where the flight began.
Up front, the G700 comes standard with the active sidesticks the G500 and G600 first brought to the marketplace.
The Symmetry flight deck, based on Honeywell’s Primus EPIC, is standard, as are dual head-up displays and autobrakes.
Gulfstream co-created its new predictive landing performance system with Honeywell.
In the landing configuration, the runway appears visually on the PFD’s speed tape clearly indicating where the aircraft can be expected to stop depending on speed and autobrake setting.
Total aircraft energy is computed by adding altitude.
If the system detects the airplane is too high or too fast to safely halt the G700 on the runway in use, it will issue the crew a “Go Around,” command, one of the few times Gulfstream makes a decision for the pilot.
Of course there’s no regulation that says pilots must obey the command, but Gulfstream still expects it to help reduce runway overruns with the added safety net the system provides.
Gulfstream president Mark Burns, a 37-year employee, offered Flying a few insights on the new G700, the 12th airplane he's had a hand in certifying as a company employee.
He began by detailing the involvement of the maintenance people early in the G700's development.
"One of our goals was to be able to remove anything on the G700 in under 30 minutes," with the only exception being an engine.
Gulfstream of course builds only business jets. "We build airplanes to help customers be more productive … to ensure they're successful," Burns said.
"When we build an airplane, we also want to be their service provider for 40 years.
We want to be the owner of the [maintenance] facility, to have control of how that experience happens for our customer, and understand their experience." 
To help gain the needed feedback, Burns told Flying, "the first thing that I do every morning is read customer surveys, because I think it's important to know how people feel about your product and your people."
No first flight or tentative delivery dates have yet been announced for the Gulfstream G700. 
The new aircraft is currently priced at $76 million for the next delivery slot available in 2023.
In a bid to promote the use of public transport and decrease the use of cars, Germany is planning to increase subsidies for public transport services.
The Federal Ministry of Finance is planning to further finance the operation and development of regional and S-bahn networks, which service German suburban areas, the operation of public buses, improvements to the rail ways and the purchasing of new trains. 
Currently, regionalisation laws state that the annual finance is to be increased by 1.8 per cent every year until 2031.
The funds are now set to increase by €150 million in 2020, by €300 million in 2021 and 2022, and by €450 million by 2023 – a total of around €1.2 billion.
Groups and transport operators have welcomed the announcement, with the Pro-Rail Alliance lobby organisation’s Managing Director Dirk Flege, which advocates for a higher market share for rail transport, stating that “the federal government wants to double the number of passengers in local and long-distance transport by 2030 and the additional funds are a step in the right direction.”
The milestone is one of the last needed before revenue service, scheduled before the end of 2019, can begin.
The Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) Silicon Valley Extension is moving closer to reaching its goal of opening by the end of the year with pre-revenue operations commencing Oct. 28 on the 10-mile first phase of the extension.  
Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority (VTA), which was responsible for the construction of the BART Silicon Valley Berryessa Extension and transferred control of Phase 1 to BART in June, says the start of pre-revenue operations marks one of the final steps required before passenger service can begin.
“The first step of pre-revenue operations is training and system familiarization of the trackwork, stations and facilities for all personnel, including operators, systems and maintenance staff.
Then comes simulated service, where the rail system is operated exactly as it would be when passenger service begins, but without passengers. 
This process allows for verifying schedules and the timing of trains.
It helps ensure service starts off as safely and efficiently as possible,” wrote Santa Clara VTA in a blog post.
“The final step before trains can carry passengers will be VTA issuing a report verifying safety certification of the system along with BART’s notice of intent to operate the service to the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC), before receiving approval from the state regulatory agency.”
Phase 1 of the project will extend service from Alameda County into Santa Clara County, with stops at Milpitas and Berryessa/North San Jose. Phase 2 will extend service from the Berryessa Transit Center to stations at Alum Rock/28TH Street, downtown San Jose and Diridon Station, with the service ending in Santa Clara.
Phase 2 of the project was the first project selected to participate in the Federal Transit Administration’s new pilot program designed to fast track major transportation infrastructure projects.
As a result of its selection, Phase 2 of the project has been allocated $125 million in federal funds that are contingent on Santa Clara VTA meeting all program requirements needed to proceed to a construction grant agreement.
The Dynamo Taxi, London’s first all-electric taxi, built in Coventry by Dynamo Motor Company, is based on a Nissan e NV 200 Evalia MPV and can carry five passengers.
Dynamo, the UK-based vehicle manufacturer, has unveiled the first 100 per cent electric, zero emission ‘Hackney Carriage’ black cab that has been officially approved by Transport for London.
Dynamo Managing Director Brendan O’Toole unveiled the Dynamo Taxi, based on a Nissan e-NV200 Evalia MPV, at the International Clean Air Conference at London City Hall.
The Mayor of London, Sadiq Khan, said: “Air pollution is a national health crisis that is stunting the lung development of our children and leading to thousands of premature deaths.
We have cut pollution by a third in central London by introducing the world’s first Ultra Low Emission Zone and worked tirelessly to clean up the bus and taxi fleet.
“London’s black cabs are known around the world, which is why I am pleased to launch the first all-electric London black cab by Dynamo.
Working with cabbies to go electric is a key part of our plans to improve London’s air quality.
The Dynamo Taxi will accelerate the retirement of polluting diesel taxis from city streets across the UK, improving air quality, helping to tackle the climate emergency and to create a green economy.
I have been delighted by the number of cabbies who have applied for our ?42 million fund to trade in their older, dirtier vehicles earlier – doing their bit to improve our filthy air.”
The Dynamo Taxi costs ?55,495, and is eligible for ?7,500 in Government Plug-in Car Grant funding.
Brendan O’Toole, founder and CEO of Dynamo, added: “The UK’s new car market is experiencing an electric revolution, with record numbers of fully electric vehicle registrations taking place each year.
Electric vehicle technology is now a viable alternative to petrol and diesel vehicles, and it is imperative the UK’s taxi market changes with the times.
“With a low starting price, and a reliable vehicle architecture in the Nissan e-NV200, we are offering a solution to the tens of thousands of taxi drivers in London and cities across the UK.”
According to TfL, taxis currently account for 16 per cent of all vehicle nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions in central London and the Dynamo taxi comes at a time when TfL has introduced licencing requirements for new taxis in order to operate in London, limiting their emissions to 50g/km CO2 and a zero emissions range of at least 30 miles.
The Dynamo is also said to lower costs for drivers; the average taxi driver in London covers between 90 to 120 miles a day.
Dynamo has said that, using a home charger, it will cost around ?6 to travel 174 miles, as opposed to around ?35-?40 in current diesel taxis.
The taxi also includes contactless payment solutions, a built-in infotainment system, heated seats and steering wheel, wheelchair accessibility and an enlarged glass roof for extra lighting.
Drone operator apparently took no evasive action.
Over the past few years, we’ve come to respect the logistical power of drones to, for example, conduct surveillance in places and weather conditions airplanes and pilots cannot.
Drones can remain on station longer than a human could tolerate, so they should have a bright future completing jobs we’ve yet to create.
But like any other kind of flying machine, if unregulated in airspace as complex as that of the U.S., drones will become a menace.
While the FAA's Part 107 has brought some order to commercial drone operations, the guidance for hobbyist operators is a bit more vague; fly beneath the safety umbrella of a drone-community like the Academy of Model Aeronautics.
Many hobbyist operators seem to know enough to fly below 400 feet AGL, remain clear of other flying machines – especially the ones with folks like us in them – and avoid flying over groups of people.
With millions of hobby drones just waiting for takeoff, the chances of the FAA enforcing any rules or guidelines are pretty slim.
 Manufacturers don’t even include much safety guidance information inside the package an unsuspecting new operator receives either.
No one’s worried about a 10-ounce micro-drone of course.
And while hobbyist machines like some of the DJIs weigh just a few pounds, hobbyists are free to purchase what they want – up to 55 pounds - even a DJI Matrice 600 Pro Hexacopter, that with a full load can weigh nearly 35 pounds.
The larger the drone and the faster its speed versus that of an airplane headed in the opposite direction, the greater the threat to whatever that drone might strike.
More significant threats of a collision between a drone and a manned aircraft seem to be on the rise.
At an NBAA Safety Committee meeting not long ago, a corporate pilot detailed his near collision with a drone in Alaska.
Last week, a drone overflew a helicopter dumping water on the Miles fire in Oregon, causing the entire airborne firefighting team to standdown until the drone had been cleared.
Remember the drone video earlier this year shot of a passing Frontier Airbus headed into Las Vegas?
The drone operator shot the video from above the Airbus.
Don't forget the drone operator near downtown Chicago flying well above 400-feet.
Last week, a drone operator on Florida's east coast posted a video that showed another incredibly close call.
The drone operator later claimed he was flying below 400 feet AGL, but the helicopter that nearly collided with the drone was flying legally too.
In the video, you’ll see the helicopter flying north along the coast near Hollywood approaching the drone, but the operator takes no evasive action, except to turn the camera around to try and capture a shot of the passing helicopter which by then was long gone.
The drone was reported to be a DJI Mavic that weighs just a few pounds.
How much damage the helicopter’s windshield would have sustained in a head-on collision is anyone’s guess.
While we might argue about who was flying at the proper altitude, avoiding manned aircraft at all times should trump any other drone guidelines.
On the website where the Florida drone pilot first posted the video, other operators left scathing comments and a potential glimpse of the future.
"Grow up and be a decent pilot,” one said.
“You are messing this up for all of us!"
Another warned, "If there was a collision, a court would find you responsible.
You'd have more to worry about than losing your expensive drone."
How much time do we have left before a drone collides with a manned aircraft, possibly resulting in fatalities.
If the industry waits until an accident to try and police this safety threat, it will surely set the drone industry back a decade, including the legal Part 107 legal operators.
The redesigned bus network will reportedly provide a more coherently planned, higher capacity and more understandable network, increasing overall services by 22 per cent.
The level of bus services in the Dublin network are predicted to increase by 22 per cent as a result of the Dublin Area Bus Network redesign, published by the National Transport Authority (NTA) in Dublin.
The redesign of the network was a key measure of the Transport Strategy for the Greater Dublin Area 2016-2035.
It is among the measures in Project Ireland 2040 and is included as an action point in the Climate Action Plan, published in early 2019.
Under the plan, the network will now be arranged on the basis of eight ‘spines’ from the city centre.
Spines are said to be very frequent routes made up of individual bus services timetabled to work together along a corridor.
At the end of the spine, the individual services branch off to serve different areas.
The plan also includes 10 orbital routes which will aim to reduce the need for passengers to travel into the city centre.
Orbital services operate around the city, providing connections between suburbs and town centres, along with connections to rail, Luas and other bus routes.
A number of city-bound services operating into Dublin City Centre are also included in the plan.
These are services that are not part of any spine and operate on their own timetable as part of the network.
Evening and weekend services will be increased and there is also provision for local services providing important connections within local areas, linking to local retail centres and to onward transport connections.
Anne Graham, NTA Chief Executive Officer, said: “Last year, we published for public consultation, our draft network plan.
The level of engagement we saw from members of the public in that process was unprecedented, and it provided us with the kind of insight into our bus services, that cannot be garnered any other way.
I have no doubt that the plan we are publishing is one that will increase overall services levels for bus customers.
 It will also make the bus network more useful to more people and will make all parts of Dublin more accessible than ever before.”
NTA has produced information brochures and a route mapper tool that has been developed for people to find details of the new network for a journey.
Ray Coyne, Dublin Bus Chief Executive Officer, said: “This revised network design is part of an ambitious and welcome investment of €1.5 billion in Dublin’s bus system.
This is also a significant opportunity to continue the growth and success of Dublin Bus and the city.
It is clear from BusConnects that urban bus public transport is key to developing a modern, dynamic public transport network and harnessing the strong economic growth experienced over the last few years.
With over 3 million extra customers carried by Dublin Bus in 2018, we will build on the strengths of this proposed network to the benefit of the city and our customers.”
The board named Thierry Betbeze head of Dassault Falcon Jet.
The Dassault Falcon Jet board named Thierry Betbeze CEO of its division, a Dassault Aviation subsidiary, among news of mixed success for the business unit in the first half of 2019.
Betbeze had served since 2016 as senior vice president, finance, for Dassault Falcon Jet.
He succeeds Jean Rosanvallon, who led the company for 23 years.
The DFJ subsidiary is responsible for the marketing, service, and sales support of Dassault in the Americas.
?ric Trappier, chairman and CEO of Dassault Aviation, reviewed the climate during the preceding months: "The first half of 2019 was dominated by uncertainty over the European elections, geopolitical tensions, terrorism, the trade war between China and the United States, Brexit and environmental pressures.
The economic environment and the [dollar-to-euro] exchange rate remain unpredictable."
Against this backdrop, the company took in only seven orders at the end of June 2019, with a total of 26 orders through August 31.
Still, the company celebrated wins on the support side, with its spares availability and service center network impressing customers and industry this year.
Target sales for 2019 remain firm, according to Trappier, with a projection of 45 Falcon and 26 Rafale aircraft.
CL Yachts, the luxury performance division of Cheoy Lee, has begun construction on a 27 metre motor yacht penned by Milan-based designer Jozeph Forakis.
Due to launch in the second quarter of 2020, the composite yacht named CL88 features a RINA certified performance hull and is targeted towards “the family with a heart for adventure”, the builder said.
An open plan layout and large exterior spaces provide far-reaching ocean views while the 1.65 metre draft enables entrance into shallow and remote anchorages and bays.
Accommodation is for a total of eight guests in four staterooms all furnished in “an equal level of luxury”.
Two crew cabins meanwhile can accommodate a total of four staff.
The propulsion package consists of twin Caterpillar C32 Acert 1600 bhp each for a top speed of 25 knots.
Designer Forakis said the exterior of the yacht was designed “to stimulate the collective memories and imagination of every yachting enthusiast.”
“Her effortless beauty and balanced proportions are timeless, but her overall look is distinctly bold and contemporary.
With the interior, pure sunlight and open, flowing spaces are the primary ingredients, giving the feeling of being connected to the water and air,” he added.
New figures reveal that investment in the UK car industry has collapsed by 70% in the continuing uncertainty over Brexit.
Just ?90 million was invested here in the first half of 2019, compared with ?2.7 billion annualised average over the past seven years, as bosses pause plans to see how the divorce from the EU plays out.
It's hit manufacturing at factories around Great Britain, too: output fell by a fifth in the first six months of the year to 666,521 cars built here, down 168,052 on the same period last year.
Figures released by the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT) showed that car manufacturers spent 'at least ?330 million' on contingency plans, as they organised factory shutdowns in advance of the original 31 March Brexit deadline.
Former prime minister Theresa May failed to pass legislation to meet that date, and the industry is now braced for a no-deal Brexit in October 2019 as hardliner Boris Johnson has succeeded her as leader of the Conservative Party.
Stay tuned for more chaos in the months ahead, potentially undoing years of growth and investment in the UK's car industry.
Factories across the land are already suffering from the dramatic fall in investment.
Honda has confirmed that it will close its sole UK car factory in Swindon, with the loss of 3500 jobs from 2021, when the current lifecycle of cars like the Civic produced there come to an end.
Katsushi Inoue, chief officer for regional operations, pointed to 'unprecedented changes' affecting the industry, and that 'it is vital that we accelerate our electrification strategy and restructure our global operations accordingly.'
Inoue also said that the decision 'has not been taken lightly and we deeply regret how unsettling this announcement will be for our people.'
Nissan, too, pulled the next X-Trail from its production plans in the UK, reversing a 2016 pledge to build the seven-seater SUV in its Sunderland factory in the north-east, but it wrote to staff in spring 2019 admitting it would no longer manufacture the X-Trail in Britain.
The model will now be made in Kyushu, Japan instead and Nissan admitted in the letter that Brexit was damaging its long-term investment plans.
 It said 'the environment for the car industry in Europe has changed dramatically' since the original decision in 2016.
Ford is on record saying that a no-deal Brexit would be 'catastrophic' for the UK arm of its business and is reportedly ramping up plans to relocate or minimise its English workforce.
Brexit affects all car makers - including those which don't manufacture in the UK.
Porsche told the BBC that it may have to charge up to 10% more on the list price of cars it sells in the UK post-Brexit, owing to customs duties and other ancillary costs of dealing with a country cast out from the EU trading zone.
It's clear the UK’s automotive industry is under serious threat from the ‘wrong’ Brexit.
So what could happen to car companies, to dealers and to the cars we buy when we exit the EU on 31 October 2019?
Right now, unless the government somehow appeases everyone and scores a great deal from the EU, it’s looking pretty gloomy, especially for the 856,000 employed in the business across the UK.
UK car manufacturers like borderless trading with the EU.
Their web of supplier networks across Europe involves an estimated 1100 trucks crossing the Channel each day, bringing parts straight to the assembly line at factories in Sunderland, Cowley, Halewood, Swindon or one of the other 32 vehicle manufacturing plants in the UK.
It’s a delicate operation that any border stoppages would disrupt in a major way.
A no-deal withdrawal will mean no transition period.
That’ll throw sand into the slick parts delivery system from Europe and could stop production lines dead.
‘It’s becoming more and more difficult to justify investment in the UK because of the uncertainty,’ Jaguar Land Rover boss Ralf Speth (below) told CAR at the Paris motor show.
‘Every day we build around 3000 cars in the UK. That’s about 25 million parts. If we miss just one part, we cannot build a vehicle… and stopped production will cost us ?60m a day.’
Very.
After the vote in 2016, car companies were sanguine, saying they respected the wishes of the people and would await the outcome of negotiations.
Two years on and faced with the ‘total ineptitude’ of the government negotiators, as one analyst put it, the usually mild CEOs are baring their teeth.
‘Hard Brexit is a red line,’ Steve Armstrong, CEO of Ford of Europe, said in a recent statement.
‘It could severely damage the UK’s competitiveness and result in a significant threat to much of the auto industry, including our own UK manufacturing operations.’ 
He hinted that could mean shutting down its two engine plants (Bridgend and Dagenham).
‘We will take whatever action is necessary to protect our business in the event of a hard Brexit.’
BMW has said it could take some Mini production out of Oxford and transfer it to the Netherlands, and JLR’s Speth has warned it could take planned investment into electric cars elsewhere.
In addition, BMW was so worried it brought forward the annual summer shutdown of its Mini plant in Cowley to 1 April 2019, a few days after the original Brexit deadline.
While we believe this worst-case scenario is an unlikely outcome, we have to plan for it,’ a BMW spokesperson said at the time.
There’s no way of knowing how serious the manufacturers are when they talk of pulling production in the event of a no-deal, although the closure of Honda's Swindon factory is proof they're not bluffing.
But we do know that a no-deal and immediate switch to World Trade Organisation (WTO) rules – with 10% import tariffs – will hurt car makers shipping to or from the EU.
‘Profit margins in our industry are significantly lower than 10%. 
These extra costs will either be passed on to the consumer or will have to be absorbed by the manufacturers,’ said Erik Jonnaert of the car makers’ European lobbying association, ACEA.
‘That will put the competitiveness of our operations under threat,’ Toyota Motor Europe CEO Johan van Zyl said.
The wrong Brexit deal would give manufacturers the excuse they need to up sticks and leave, particularly given our weaker labour laws compared to France or Germany.
‘It’s easy to get rid of people in the UK, so it’s easy to pull out of,’ said David Bailey, professor of business at Aston University.
‘I’m not saying that’s going to happen when models are mid-cycle, but when they are being replaced that’s when manufacturers make those locational choices.’
A no-deal scenario will badly hit already weakening car sales, according to market analysts LMC Automotive.
The firm believes can and van sales would continue to fall, bottoming out at 2.55 million in 2020, compared to three million in 2016.
On the other hand, if we manage to negotiate a nice free-trade agreement involving an orderly transitional period, that would be enough to halt the sales slide next year and increase demand to 2.81 million by 2021.
The difference between the two potential 2020 figures is huge: 270,000 vehicles. 
One of the many Brexit unknowns is whether we’ll remain in Europe’s average CO2 agreement, which fines manufacturers that don’t hit targets for average emissions across their range.  
‘If the UK dropped out there would be no reason for manufacturers to sell plug-in vehicles in the UK because they would no longer count to CO2 targets,’ said Greg Archer of green pressure group Transport & Environment (T&E).
‘That would create a shortage.’
Manufacturers might be more willing to sell us less-fuel-efficient engine options, some of which have already been canned, knowing it wouldn’t impact their overall EU score.
Well, although new-car sales are down, it’s not by much – dealers have been saved by the mass migration to finance, which has softened the blow of the price rises on Eurozone imports caused by the weak pound.
This pattern is likely to continue after Brexit. Daksh Gupta, CEO of the Marshall Motor Group dealership chain, said: ‘Customers are used to paying the ?300 a month.
They like the idea of PCP.’ They just don’t get quite as much for their ?300 as they used to.
‘They’ve come down a model or even migrated across brands.
They’re still buying the cars, but the richness is decreasing,’ he said.
That’ll get worse in a no-deal scenario – another 10% will be wiped off the pound’s value again if we leave with no deal, LMC predicts.
So although we’ll still buy cars, we just won’t get as much for our money. Not very cheerful after all then.
Great Britain plc has enjoyed a strong few years of production, peaking at nearly 1.8 million units in 2017; but as the SMMT graph below demonstrates, that's quickly sliding as political uncertainty bites.
‘It’s very concerning to see demand for UK built cars decline in November, with output seriously impacted by falling business and consumer confidence in the UK allied to weakening export markets,’ Mike Hawes, SMMT Chief Executive, said last autumn.
‘With fewer than 100 days until the UK leaves the European Union, the automotive industry needs certainty and a ‘no-deal’ Brexit must be ruled out.
Thousands of jobs in British car factories and supply chains depend on free and frictionless trade with the EU – if the country falls off a cliff-edge next March the consequences would be devastating.
The boss of Jaguar Land Rover has already warned that uncertainty over Brexit negotiations is putting ?80 billion of future investment at risk.
Chief executive Ralph Speth said that JLR was reconsidering its future options as it prepared for a worse-case scenario of no deal being struck over the UK's exit from the EU.
A bad Brexit deal would cost Jaguar Land Rover more than ?1.2bn profit each year,’ Speth warned.
As a result, we would have to drastically adjust our spending profile.
We have spent around ?50bn in the UK in the past five years - with plans for a further ?80bn more in the next five. 
This would be in jeopardy should we be faced with the wrong outcome.’
He added that the company's 'heart and soul is in the UK,' but in an interview with the Financial Times he admitted that JLR would consider closing UK factories if necessary.
If I'm forced to go out because we don't have the right deal, then we have to close plants here in the UK and it will be very, very sad.
This is hypothetical, and I hope it's an option we never have to go for.'
JLR joins the chorus of different manufacturing giants warning about the perils of a no-deal solution, which could add tariffs and red tape for a complex, multi-national car making industry that relies on frictionless movement of people and parts to build cars in Britain.
Mini (above) has also warned that uncertainty over Brexit is damaging its business.
We caught up with Paul Philpott, the CEO and president of Kia Motors UK.
We import 55% of our cars from Slovakia, the other 45% from Korea, and are worried about how we get cars and parts into the UK.
What are the implications of tariffs to my business? What regulatory changes might we face?
The honest answer is, until a deal is done we just don't know.'
He warned that this ongoing uncertainty was damaging to business. 
There's just no clarity - it's really hard to plan for all the different scenarios.
If this uncertainty goes beyond November, we will be in trouble.'
Kia normally holds around 7000 cars in stock across the dealership network, Philpott (above) said.
And we can store an additional 15,000 cars at the Immingham docks [where Kia imports cars in Lincolnshire].
We can store over 20,000 cars, or around two months' stock and are considering how much we need to do this to balance the risk from Brexit.'
Manufacturers, importers, dealers and others in the supply chain all face an anxious wait for a deal to be done. 
Jaguar Land Rover and BMW have announced a surprise collaboration to co-develop the next generation of electric drive systems, including the motors and control software that operate them.
Both companies have established creds in the area, with pioneering products such as the i3, i8 and i-Pace leading the charge to battery-powered vehicles.
It's a sign that even the world's biggest car makers can't do this electrification thing on their own; such is the scale of the transformation required, they can share costs and pool knowledge better by working together.
The announcement revealed the two groups would jointly invest in research and development, engineering and procurement. No financial terms of the deal have been announced.
Nick Rogers, Jaguar Land Rover engineering director said: 'The transition to Autonomous, Connected, Electric and Shared (ACES) represents the greatest technological shift in the automotive industry in a generation.
The pace of change and consumer interest in electrified vehicles is gathering real momentum and it’s essential we work across industry to advance the technologies required to deliver this exciting future. 
We’ve proven we can build world beating electric cars but now we need to scale the technology to support the next generation of Jaguar and Land Rover products.
It was clear from discussions with BMW Group that both companies’ requirements for next generation EDUs to support this transition have significant overlap making for a mutually beneficial collaboration.'
Engineers in England and Germany will share their knowledge in developing electric drive units - the e-motors and software that power electric cars.
By pooling their resources, both brands will 'take advantage of efficiencies arising from shared research and development and production planning as well as economies of scale from joint procurement across the supply chain.'
Yep, it's about saving money.
But each brand is adamant they will retain brand differntiation, 'to deliver the specific characteristics required for their respective range of products.'
It's no different to how BMW and Toyota have shared engines in the past decade, for instance. 
Each manufacturer will build their own electric drive systems - in Wolverhampton for Jaguar and Land Rover, and Munich for BMW's.
Could this deal spark further collaboration between the two car makers? We'd say it's likely.
An official told us: 'We are collaborating with BMW on powertrain technologies, but beyond the EDU [electric drive unit] collaboration we have nothing further to say.'
The BMW X3 M is the first fully fledged M division effort in this sector, after a series of M Performance models. 
As you might expect, it's no sluggard - with the 503bhp straight six that'll also power next year's new BMW M3 and M4. 
But while a sledgehammer engine might make sense in a sports saloon or coupe, does it add up in a mid-weight SUV?
We're a fan of the regular BMW X3, but we've now tested the new M model in the UK, as well as on the international launch: read on for our fully updated review.
It counts cars like the Porsche Macan, Mercedes-Benz GLC 63 and Alfa Romeo Stelvio Quadrifoglio as rivals - and to give it the best possible fighting chance, Munich has smuggled its most powerful six-pot production engine in history and plopped it in the engine bay.
It's enough for some pretty startling, sports car-troubling performance claims, with 0-62mph taking a whisker over four seconds…
Displacing three litres and boosted by two independent monoscroll turbochargers the X3 M produces 503bhp and 443lb ft of torque in Competition specification.
 The standard car makes 474hp, but that won’t be coming to the UK.
It’s a brand new engine, sharing only 10% of its parts with the BMW X3 M40i. 
Technical highlights include a cylinder head with a 3D printed element for lightness and better heat displacement, plus a seriously beefed-up cooling system with three radiators and a pair of oil coolers.
Higher pressure injectors leap from 200 to 350 bar and the oil sump features a clever channel design and pump to stop lubricant pooling at one end under acceleration and cornering. Inside, the crankshaft and pistons are forged for extra strength and hunger for revs, while the turbo housing is built into the exhaust manifold to save weight.
 Plus it looks cool.
BMW’s engineers said this unit runs at ‘just’ 2.3 bar of boost pressure in the X3 M, less than you’d expect considering those significantly strengthened internals, which hints at some serious power gains to be unlocked in the future. 
Such as when it gets dropped into the next M3.
Way less unstressed than that high specific output would suggest, with omnipresent torque from 2600rpm to nearly 6k. 
Peak power arrives at 6250rpm and is maintained right up to the 7200rpm redline. 
It literally plateaus for 1000rpm – almost as if its true potential is being held back for a future car.
Anyway, the result of all of this is that the X3 M feels as stout as a redwood across a huge spread of engine speeds, from barely any revs to that distinctly un-turbocharged redine, with a tangible benefit to revving it out. 
As such it’s alarmingly fast – taking 4.1 seconds to crack 0-62mph and going on to 177mph, if derestricted.
Sounds good too – despite the forced induction and the fact it also features two gasoline particulate filters and four catalytic converters – the Competition-standard M Sport exhaust system delivers a pleasing soundtrack through its pair of double tailpipes, full of burble and bass at tickover and soaring soprano in its upper reaches.
Power is sent through the latest-generation M Steptronic eight-speed transmission – while undeniably effective at rattling off gearshifts, it’s not particularly exciting to use, with too-smooth shifts in all three of its ferocity modes and shift paddles that flap rather than clunk positively with each pull. 
It sounds like an odd complaint because the stepless changes bring about great stability on track and even when driving hard on the road, but sometimes you’d like a Patrick Swayze-style roundhouse to the spine in response to a full-bore upshift to remind you that you’re driving a car with more than 500hp, right?
Yes, and that brings us onto the chassis, which is best described as purposefully firm. 
We drove the 21-inch wheel-equipped Competition model on cracked New Jersey tarmac not unlike the roads we get in the UK and even in Comfort mode, the adaptive steel suspension is keen to let you know exactly how sharp-edged the defect you just rode over was. 
We've now driven it in the UK, too, and can confirm that the BMW X3 M rides stiffly across most road surfaces. 
On the big rims, it just lacks some of the pliancy needed to cope with broken blacktop.
It’s not unusable but those after a powerful, everyday X3 will be better served by one of the faster models in the standard range. 
That’s a bit of a shame because that burly, flexible engine coupled with a cushy, air suspended ride and decent space for four adults would have made the X3 M a hilariously good long-distance cruiser.
That’s not really what M Division is about though, is it? 
Despite being an SUV, this car is principally (apparently) a focused cornering machine designed to thrill owners on a circuit as well as on the road. BMW’s engineers claim it should drive like an M3, only a bit higher up.
Changes to the chassis include a fettled front end with unique swivel bearings, torque arms and wishbones, plus elastomer bearings and more camber for stability. 
There’s also a hefty strut brace in the engine bay, additional underbody bracing and M-specific anti-roll bars, which quell body movements well. 
Adaptive dampers adjust depending on surface or can be manually tweaked with Comfort, Sport and Sport+ modes.
Huge brakes borrowed from the M760i haul the X3 M up effectively but did start to get a bit long in the pedal after four (admittedly quite long) laps at Monticello Motor Club. 
Carbon ceramics are not available either – too expensive for this market, says BMW.
The xDrive system is biased towards the rear, and dynamic stability control plus an Active M Differential help to put that power down, for the most part, while avoiding having to shunt it to the front wheels. 
Traction is peerless in most everyday driving conditions.
There’s no two-wheel drive drift-mode like you get with the M5, but the X3 M is principally a rear-driver. 
Despite this being the latest generation of xDrive you can still sense power moving around under you – it’s not abrupt but it’s far from natural, although the mid-corner traction it summons up is remarkable.
When you’d rather explore the limits of grip yourself there is the clever M Dynamic Mode –which winds off the DSC interference and activates the M xDrive 4WD Sport setting, shifting more power aft. 
Do so and the rear of the X3 M feels very involved, allowing you to steer on the throttle or tuck the nose into the apex when you’ve been a bit ambitious with your entry speed. 
We can't believe we're writing this in an SUV review, but smooth oversteer is available if you pin the front end and commit with the throttle – anything less results in the car hopping and skipping along sideways on its outside wheel before the DSC pulls everything into a straight line. 
There’s a pervasive sense of something – the AWD or traction control – just waiting to come and tidy up after you that sets this apart from a proper rear-wheel drive car.
Altogether we’d say the BMW is not quite as tail-happy as a Porsche Macan or Alfa Romeo Stelvio, but loads more adjustable than an Audi SQ5. 
A neatly happy medium that inspires confidence, which will lead to fast lap times and a smile on your face.
But who the hell ever takes their SUV on a track day?
Back to more sensible matters, and the X3 scores highly. 
It's a well rounded package, with plenty of space for five adults (no three rows of seats here) and a decent sized boot. 
Larger families or those wanting maximum space may wish to trade up to an X5, but we prefer the more bijou dimensions of the X3.
It's all the car many families will need, but we're just not quite sure if the M model masters its all-things-to-all-people brief…
An M Division engineer we spoke to said they set up fast SUVs with exactly the same ethos as their saloons, so an M3 driver that needs a bit of extra ride height to negotiate a long, rutted driveway should feel right at home in an X3 M.
In truth, there are always going to be compromises when you boost the ride height and start sending power to the front and rear wheels, and this SUV is no exception to that. 
As a driver’s car, the X3 M is up there with the Macan – the Porsche offering a more raw, engaging drive; the BMW more stable, confidence-inspiring and ultimately satisfying if you’re chasing after fast lap times. 
It's just a bit too bouncy and stiff-riding for our tastes in the UK.
That engine is a real treat, though – generating huge power throughout the rev range and doing so in a linear, boost-free way that feels distinctly un-turbocharged. 
Roll on, the new M3.
Ahead of its official unveiling in Tokyo in January 2020, we have driven a prototype version of Toyota’s new hot hatch, the GR Yaris.
It’s an all-wheel-drive three-door, powered by a 1.6-litre turbocharged petrol triple. 
Power outputs are said to be around 260bhp and more than 260lb ft; Toyota claims it’s the most compact and most powerful 1.6 ever made. 
The gearbox is a six-speed manual.
There are no direct competitors, but its combination of light weight and high power means it will be competitive with some larger hot hatches. 
Expect it to be priced closer to the Honda Civic Type R than the Ford Fiesta ST, both of which are front-wheel drive, when it goes on sale towards the end of 2020. 
It will be a full production model, not a limited edition.
It’s an entirely new car, developed over three years and sharing very few components with the recently unveiled regular 2020 Yaris. 
It has several roles: sexing up Toyota’s largely frumpy image; re-energising Toyota’s engineers; and homologating the 2021 Yaris WRC car. 
Although the GR and the WRC car will be largely different under the skin, they will share the same general look, shape and size. 
Hence the three-door body and sloping roofline – 95mm lower at the rear – which gives the WRC aero team more scope to create an effective rear wing.
The engine is 21mm further back to improve weight distribution, and the regular Yaris’s torsion-beam rear suspension is replaced by a double-wishbone set-up. 
The doors and bonnet are aluminium, and the roof is carbonfibre-reinforced plastic, for some serious lightweighting.
GR chief engineer Naohiko Saito told CAR magazine that although the car had been developed chiefly in Japan, it had also been tested at the N?rburgring in Europe and had benefited from input from Toyota WRC manager Tomi M?kkinen’s TMR operation, including all three of the outgoing Toyota WRC drivers. 
‘They gave us a lot of feedback and many difficult requests. 
Most of those requests were for a lightweight body and good aerodynamics. 
Also we changed the underbody based on their requests – it’s reshaped and reinforced.
‘Ninety per cent of what TMR asked for has gone in. 
The 10 per cent is mostly about a more extreme shape at the back, for directional airflow. 
But it’s a road car, so there needs to be some room in the back and a window you can see out of.’
The rally team also had a lot of input into the four-wheel-drive system. 
It has three modes: Normal is 60 per cent front, 40 per cent rear; Sport is 30 per cent front, 70 per cent rear (for on-road fun); Track is 50:50, for gravel and snow use as well as on track.
There are no other modes for the driver to choose between: suspension, throttle and steering response are all fixed.
There will be the option of limited-slip Torsen differentials to move drive between left and right. 
That will be offered as part of a track pack, also featuring different tyres, tweaked suspension and different wheels.
A privateer’s rally version is also being investigated, with factory-installed rollcage.
There’s no choice of transmission – it’s a six-speed manual.
The brakes are new: 18in discs, four-piston up front, two at the rear.
Although the wheelbase is the same as the normal 2020 Yaris, the rear track is wider. 
The cabin will be largely the same.
The version we drove on road and on track at Estoril in Portugal was camouflaged outside and in, but was clearly close to being a production-ready car. 
It’s perfectly happy in town and on motorway, but perhaps most in its element on twisty roads and the racetrack, where it’s unintimidating and easy to enjoy.
Because part of its job is paving the way for the 2021 rally car, it doesn’t sit low like a sports car – there’s a decent amount of ground clearance. 
But the suspension is firm, so there’s not excessive bodyroll in corners. 
In fact it could prove to be too firm for some tastes, especially if you’re carrying passengers.
There are echoes of both the Fiesta ST and the Civic Type R, in that it’s agile and responsive, with direct steering and a healthy amount of low-down torque. 
The engine and chassis felt well matched, and the four-wheel-drive system dealt effortlessly with a wet track, getting the power down quickly and securely.
 The gearshift isn’t as slick as the Honda’s, but then few are.
Saito says all-wheel-drive cars as varied as the Audi S1, Ford Focus RS, Subaru Impreza and even the classic Lancia Delta Integrale were examined as the GR engineers worked on the Yaris. 
More prosaically, some of the hardware is shared with the RAV4.
The Yaris is the second GR model in the current Toyota line-up, joining the Supra. But unlike the Supra – co-developed with the BMW Z4 – the Yaris is all Toyota’s own work: ‘A very big chance for Toyota engineers,’ says Saito. 
It will be built at a Japanese factory.
There will also be a Yaris GR Sport, but that’s a largely cosmetic upgrade, not a hot GR model.
The GRMN badge that caused widespread bewilderment when it was used on the limited-edition hot version of the outgoing Yaris is being dropped in Europe, where we’ll just get GR, for Gazoo Racing – the pet project of Toyota boss Akio Toyoda. 
On the evidence of our early GR Yaris prototype drive, this new Toyota hot hatch suggests that the Japanese manufacturing giant is on a roll; it’s a unique surprise in the small-car sector and looks to provide a high-tech, rally-bred burst of fun in the pocket rocket marketplace. 
What’s next from GR? It’s not been confirmed, but Toyota is not denying that some of the GR departmental magic will be applied to the GT86 before it dies of old age. 
It’s great to see Toyota back on the front foot.
Critics might like to portray the car industry as arthritic and slow-moving, but the merger between the PSA and FCA groups show that it can occasionally be the very opposite. 
The two have been gently courting for a while, but serious dating only restarted in September after FCA's brief engagement to Renault imploded in May 2019.
PSA's CEO Carlos Tavares and FCA's chairman John Elkann shook hands on the deal over dinner in Paris on Sunday and we've already seen its broad outline. 
And now it's been finalised.
The new and as-yet unnamed entity will be the world's third biggest carmaker, ahead of General Motors. 
It will have revenues of €170bn, profits of around €11bn and build cars under 15 marques.
According to an announcement from the new company, it will be the 4th largest global OEM by volume and 3rd largest by revenue. 
Annual sales will stretch to 8.7 million units, with combined revenues of nearly €170 billion.
It will be bigger than Volkswagen in Europe and have an SUV and truck business in the US which is setting record margins and profits. 
By combining, it will generate an additional €3.7bn in annual profit for a one-off cost of around €2.8bn, but does not expect to close any factories.
John Elkann will be group chairman and Carlos Tavares will take the place of group CEO. 
Under the brilliant leadership of Tavares and after his 2017 acquisition of Vauxhall and Opel, PSA is bumping its head on the ceiling in Europe and needs a presence in the US. 
FCA needs scale and stability and to refresh Fiat's line-up.
Tavares is just the man for that job. 
He'll lead the merged business as CEO for the next five years, with FCA's British-born boss Michael Manley as his number two, running the US operations, and the 43 year-old Elkann as chairman. 
Tavares took Vauxhall-Opel from death's door to profit in a year and it's hugely exciting to think what he might do to with Fiat, Alfa and Maserati. He'll be able to generate huge savings - and make better cars - by simply picking the new group's best platform in each segment and building everything on that.
The merger doesn't solve everything for Tavares, though, and it might create some new headaches. 
He'll want to rationalise those 15 nameplates. 
Ironically, the two which give FCA its name - Fiat and Chrysler - are among the vulnerable, but actually killing Fiat may prove politically impossible. 
Both carmakers lag on EV and AV tech, but at least the huge spending required can now be amortized over nearly nine million sales. 
Both groups lag badly in China, and the merger won't help much there.
Mike Manley, as of 1 November, has also reportedly discussed the shelving of the 8C (above) and GTV projects on a conference call with the media.
But overall this huge deal makes huge sense, and more sense than a merger between Renault and FCA.
In our CAR Power List 2019, we ranked Tavares at #3, partly for the likelihood that he'd pull off this deal. 
We also said that he was the new Sergio Marchionne: a far-sighted and unsentimental leader who saw that the industry needed to consolidate in order to thrive. 
We think Sergio would approve.
When Honda launched the 10th-generation Civic back in 2017, buyers and journalists (but mainly journalists) moaned like stink that the ‘buttons’ lining the side of the infotainment display were touch-sensitive, and the volume control was an awkward slider.
Ready for 2020, though, the facelifted model replaces these with physical buttons and a proper scroller knob for the volume control. 
And Honda UK even commissioned an over-dramatic press shot to emphasise the fact. It’s got the measure of us, and we applaud it for that.
Anyway. 
There’s slightly more to the Civic’s MMC (Minor Model Change – corporate-speak for very mild facelift) than just a twisty dial on the dashboard.
You’d be hard pressed to notice the changes, inside or out. 
The bumpers have been slightly restyled front and rear, the headlights are a little slimmer with redesigned DRLs.
Certain models also get a new design of 17-inch alloy wheel.
Meanwhile, inside you’ll find the aforementioned knob, plus additional buttons for the climate control panel – meaning you don’t have to delve into the touchscreen menus as often as before.
Certain models also get electric adjustment for the seats for the first time, something that was missing from range-topping models before.
Speaking of the range, a new trim level has been introduced. Called EX Sport Line, it sits on top of the regular EX model but brings a little of that Type R bling in the form of a lower body kit, big alloy wheels and a truly chavtacular rear spoiler sitting in the middle of the split rear screen.
 It’s Honda’s take on an S-Line or AMG Line. 
‘Cause it’s got Line in the name, see?
What’s more telling is what hasn’t changed. 
You still get the same narrow but brilliant engine lineup – a 126bhp 1.0-litre 3cyl, a 179bhp 1.5-litre 4cyl and a 116bhp 1.6-litre 4-cyl diesel. 
You still get the same sublime six-speed manual ‘box, which now has a Type-R aping spherical knob in EX Sport Line trim. 
The rest of the interior’s virtually unchanged, too, which means loads of space for four six-footers and a cavernous boot. 
It’s not quite Skoda Octavia levels of space in here, but you won’t be disappointed coming from a Golf or Focus.
Yes, slightly. After all, despite its dynamic looks, the Civic’s always been more biased towards comfort. 
Sport Line doesn’t bring any dynamic changes as such, but it rides on big alloy wheels and features the same two-mode adaptive dampers as other top-spec models, so it’s as racy as the Civic gets outside of the Type R. 
Other than that, it’s business as usual. 
The chassis is still a real highlight of the Civic – not as engaging overall as a Ford Focus, but still really good fun to stick into a corner.
 The driving position is utterly perfect too, with loads of adjustment and a nice low seat.
Despite this a near perfect-balance is struck when it comes to ride comfort. 
This Civic’s a large car with a long wheelbase, and as such it’s able to ride terrible roads with consummate ease. 
It rides superbly on the motorway too, without sacrificing too much to body lean.
 In fact, all the adaptive dampers do is make it less comfortable – there’s no point engaging them.
You’ll still want the Type R or at least the 180bhp 1.5-litre if you want to make rapid progress, but for most the 1.0-litre triple is perfectly adequate. 
It belies its small size with a rorty tone (verging on plain noisy at times) and decent slug of low-end torque.
 You’ll be changing ratio fairly often, but that’s no chore with the six-speed ‘box.
A heavy flywheel takes some enjoyment away – it bogs down the engine response, so it’s slow to lose revs, making for jerky low-speed progress. 
It hits back with good efficiency.
It probably won’t surprise you that we recommend avoiding the automatic gearbox. 
Diesel models were previously available with a nine-speed torque converter – this has been dropped, and now your only automatic option is the CVT on either 1.0-litre or 1.5-litre petrols.
It’s dire. Don’t torture yourself. 
The CVT’s approach to progress seems to be to pull the engine to 3,000 revs as soon as possible (coincidentally, the noisiest part of the rev range) and keep it there come hell or high water, regardless of what the accelerator pedal is asking for. 
WLTP efficiency is improved but in the real world we were struggling to best 40mpg. Put simply, it’s not worth the pain. 
If you need an auto gearbox in a car of this size, get yourself a VW Golf with a DSG or a Ford Focus or Mazda 3 with a torque converter.
There’s also little point going any higher than EX Sport Line in the range. 
With dual-zone climate, touchscreen infotainment, heated seats, a full suite of safety aids and LED lights, there’s nothing missing that you could find further up. 
In fact, unless the body kit really attracts you, maybe just stick to EX…
The facelift’s definitely a bit half-baked, but the Civic was a good car before it and it’s still a good car after. 
The improvements made, however small, do make a difference – the volume knob, for example, is long overdue. 
We’d still like to see the CVT gearbox and the infotainment system replaced, but stick to what the Civic’s good at and it really does make a case for itself even against the might of this crowded class.
The typical good Honda dealership experience and exemplary reliability should definitely stand the Civic in good stead among private buyers, though Honda’s finance packages aren’t particularly competitive for those used to chopping and changing their PCP deals with regularity. 
Would we recommend it against the brilliant Focus and Golf? 
Not quite – but it runs them closer than you’d think. 
We reckon it’s well worth a look.
If you’re part of the Apple architecture, then you’ll probably already know about – or even use – Apple’s intuitive CarPlay system, which allows a user to mirror a select group of Apple apps onto their car’s multimedia screen.
Apple CarPlay apps include Apple Maps, Google Maps, the alternate mapping service Waze, music streaming service Spotify, WhatsApp, voice-to-text messaging and more.
Currently, an Apple CarPlay head unit requires the user to simply plug a phone into a USB port in their car to activate the CarPlay apps, but there’s a movement afoot across the industry to make Apple CarPlay wireless.
What’s Apple CarPlay, and how does wireless Apple CarPlay work? 
Well… you hop in your car, hit ‘CarPlay’ on the head unit and it… just works. 
The system uses a combination of WiFi, cellular and Bluetooth reception to stream to your compatible multimedia system.
BMW was the first car company to offer the service, even though it inexplicably decided to charge end users a subscription fee for a service that every other carmaker provides for free. 
The company is reportedly looking to drop the fee.
Other carmakers joining the wireless Apple CarPlay revolution include Audi, which debuted the system aboard the latest A6, while fellow VW Group brand Volkswagen has also indicated that it’ll roll the wireless CarPlay system out on the Golf Mk8.
Volkswagen expects other vehicles to be updated within 12-18 months, with passenger cars such as the Tiguan, Golf and Touareg in the firing line.
 It will also encompass the new T-Roc and T-Cross that are due in May 2020.
There are some exceptions to Volkswagen’s wireless CarPlay rollout, mainly on the commercial vehicle side of the business.
Mercedes-Benz, meanwhile, will add wireless CarPlay functionality to its MBUX system, which launched with 2018’s A-Class update.
If your car is still a few years away from an update, it’s possible to buy an Apple CarPlay head unit aftermarket in order to access the service.
Companies like Pioneer offer Apple CarPlay stereos that will offer the wireless service.
In case you’re wondering, CarPlay is compatible with the iPhone 5, the iPhone 5C, iPhone 5S, iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus, the iPhone 6S and iPhone 6S Plus, the iPhone 7 and iPhone 7 Plus, the iPhone 8 and iPhone 8 Plus, the iPhone X, the iPhone XS and XS Max, and the iPhone XR.
Seat’s perennial Leon hatch is about to be replaced, with the brand dropping its first teaser.
 It also confirmed the date of the reveal: Tuesday 28 January 2020. Until then, a shadowy video is all we have to go on.
Even so, there are plenty of familiar Seat cues throughout. 
The headlights are full LED and shaped much like the Tarraco’s units, with Seat confirming that a ‘dynamic’ version of them will be available. 
The rear light bar, which stretches across the whole rear end (and which Seat calls coast-to-coast), is also like that of the Tarraco. 
Sliding indicators will also be a thing, and puddle lights will also be an option.
There’s a glimpse of the interior, too. 
Naturally, it’s heavily related to that of the Mk8 Golf and updated Skoda Octavia. 
Along with a red bow-line stretching around the dashboard housing, you can also spot the virtual instruments and infotainment screen from the new VW inside here. 
There’s also the stubby shift-by-wire gear selector.
Little else is confirmed, but it’s pretty much a given that there’ll be an updated MQB platform underneath, use of mild hybrid petrol engines and cleaner diesels when it goes on sale early next year.
It has been 20 years since the?Honda S2000?came into the automotive world, and the world has been pining for a replacement ever since its retirement in 2009. This isn’t it though.
Instead, Honda Access, the accessories arm of Honda, will be presenting a modified?S2000?at next month’s Tokyo Auto Salon, to commemorate the 20th?anniversary of the iconic roadster’s debut in 1999.
According to Honda Access, the S2000 20th?Anniversary Prototype will feature mostly cosmetic changes in the form of a sharper front bumper that can be seen from the lone teaser image,??new suspension, and a new audio system.
It is uncertain if these accessories will be made available to S2000 owners, or will merely be a commemorative one-off.
That being said, the S2000 isn’t the only icon getting a modern treatment for Tokyo Auto Salon, as Honda Access will also debut a customised EK9 Civic Type R.
The first-generation Civic Type R?(more popularly known by its internal designation, the EK9), left an indelible mark on early-2000s car culture with its frantic 182bhp, 188pb ft four-cylinder B16B screamer of an engine, lightweight ethos, and aftermarket tuning potential.
As a tribute to the EK9’s iconic status in car culture, Honda Access will debut an accessorised example known as the “Civic Cyber Night Japan Cruiser 2020”, which reimagines the EK9 for the “modern youth” that “reflects a neo-Japan where the near future and underground are disturbed”.
Not sure what that means exactly, but those who are familiar with the EK9’s popularity in the tuning scene will get the gist.
Tokyo Auto Salon 2020 will be held from January 10th?to 12th?at Chiba City’s Makuhari Messe.
Audi is experimenting with new technology to make its employees safer, stronger and just a little more like Iron Man.
A trial of two exoskeletons has begun by Audi with the goal of choosing a long term system for its production line employees.
The Paexo from Ottobock and the Skelex 360 from Skelex are the current products being tested on around 60 employees to determine which is more suitable for widespread implementation.
According to Audi, the external support structures are designed to help in performing overhead tasks so that muscles tire less quickly. 
The technology is being used across the assembly line, paint shop and tool construction stations.
They do this through joints positioned behind the shoulders of the jacket-like device which help keep the workers arms held up while distributing weight to the hips. 
The function of these is purely mechanical with no motorised assistance.
The main questions being asked by this testing are about movement restriction, quality of material after extended use and the level of support offered by the use of these exoskeletons.
Audi has been experimenting with exoskeletons for a number of years now with products from Laevo having been in use in different stages of production.
Those, however, primarily assisted in lifting heavy objects with the support being focused on the thighs, hips and back.
 The Laevo units had hydraulic-adjustable carbonfibre reinforced plastic struts for support and could be fitted according to workers heights.
Audi’s new trial is looking at reducing all round muscle fatigue where possible. 
This is not new technology, with large scale manufacturers BMW, Hyundai, Ford and General Motors all experimenting with systems to keep workers safer.
‘Vorsprung durch Technik’ or ‘Being ahead through technology’ is Audi’s motto and this move to increase safety for their workers suggests they are working towards the fulfilment of that statement.
Mass legal action against Volkswagen's role in the emissions cheating scandal has begun in the UK, as around 91,000 motorists challenge VW in the High Court. 
They are banding together to claim compensation for being misled over their vehicles' emissions - and it's touted as the largest class action in UK legal history.
Owners of VWs, Audis, Seats and Skodas are trying to sue the car maker three years after the litigtaion was first filed in 2016. Shazia Yamin from the Product Safety and Consumer Law team at law firm Leigh Day said: 'After four years, I look forward to our clients having their day in court. 
They believe that Volkswagen not only misled customers but that they also endangered public health with their blatant disregard for safe NOx emission levels and should be held to account.' 
VW denies any wrongdoing and intends to defend the action.
A two-week preliminary hearing is now underway at the High Court in London, where Mr Justice Waksman will judge whether the software in UK cars should be classed as a 'defeat device' under EU law, as it was in the United States. 
If he agrees with disgruntled owners, then Volkswagen could be forced to offer compensation to owners here, piling on further pressure to Wolfsburg, which has already spent billions on compensation and fines in the US and other territories. 
A spokesperson from VW Group told us: 'The purpose of the hearing is to determine two specific questions of law, namely whether the English & Welsh High Court is bound by the findings of the German Federal Motor Transport Authority (KBA) or the British Vehicle Certification Agency (VCA), and whether the legal definition under Article 3(10) of Regulation 715/2007/EC of a defeat device is met if certain factors are fulfilled. 
Volkswagen says the answer to both questions is no.
Volkswagen Group continues to defend robustly its position in the High Court in London. 
It remains Volkswagen Group’s case that the claimants did not suffer any loss at all and that the affected vehicles did not contain a prohibited defeat device. 
The decision today does not affect any questions of liability or loss.'
We will update this story with news of the case as it unfolds - and this class action could rumble on for two to three years, legal experts predict.
 Read on for more background about the VW emissions scandal.
The so-called Dieselgate scandal dates back to 2015. VW was found to have systematically cheated emissions tests in the US and Europe by using 'cheat devices' in engine ECU controls, so vehicles could detect when they were in a lab and when they were on a real road, trimming exhaust pollution signficantly to score better in tests. 
Volkswagen has set aside more than €30 billion to pay fines, recalls and other costs arising, forced sweeping changes in its management and realigned its future strategy around electric cars, as it accelerates away from fossil fuels
It's hard not to underestimate the import of the Dieselgate scandal - it transformed the industrial landscape in Wolfsburg, and arguably boardrooms across the world.
Volkswagen's 'defeat device' was first uncovered by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which alleged that 3.0-litre diesel engines in some VW, Audi and Porsche cars were fitted with software capping their nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions during testing - but allowing levels up to nine times greater during ordinary driving. 
Chaos ensued, and the scandal rapidly went straight to the top of the group - with chairman Martin Winterkorn stepping down in September 2015, along with a variety of notable exeucutives such as engineering chief Ulrich Hackenberg, who masterminded the roll-out of the MQB modular architecture that underpins crucial volume models across VW, Audi, Skoda and Seat.
Lawsuits - civil and criminal - continue to be held in different territories around the world and VW set aside billions in compensation and fines, redrawing the company's future strategy.
It quickly became clear what effect the new austerity era in Wolfsburg would have: VW pledged that the next-generation Phaeton will switch to become an electric limousine, it fast-tracked hyper-clean diesel technology and it developed a new scalable electric architecture dubbed MEB to underpin a new generation of EVs with projected ranges of between 150-300 miles. 
The silver lining of this particular cloud is that VW skipped a generation and invested heavily in EVs.
The UK boss of Volkswagen, Paul Willis (below), was hauled in front of MPs and admitted that 400,000 British cars would need physical engine modifications to remedy the 'defeat device' emissions cheat software. 
The company started fixing affected cars in January 2016 and said it would take a good year to sort all the cars.
Willis, who has now left his role, was called to appear in front of the transport select committee to explain how VW would restore motorists' faith in the company's cars. 
He admitted that a third of cars affected in the UK would require a change to the fuel injection system - mostly the 1.6 TDI models sold since 2008.
 It's a further blow to VW, and confirmation that it's not just a simple software upgrade.
It has transpired that around 3 million of the 11m cars identified globally could require physical hardware upgrades, as well as a software reflash.
Officials were keen to stress this was a service action to 'refit' cars, not a full recall. 
It's a technicality, but full-blown recalls are reserved in the UK for safety-related issues. 
VW wrote to affected owners and offered a retro-fit upgrade to their diesel car. 
Owners took their car to a main dealer who offered to upgrade the ECU to eliminate the problem software free of charge. 
But VW subsequently confirmed that some cars would need additional physical engineering changes as well as a software reflash.
Models affected include all Golf Mk6, Passat Mk7 and Tiguan Mk1 diesels, which were 'equipped exclusively with type EA189 diesel engines.
 Audis affected included some A1, A3, A4, A5, A6, TT, Q3 and Q5 models, it was confirmed. Skoda and Seat models affected were also based on the group MQB architecture.
The new group boss of Volkswagen certainly had his hands full. 
Wolfsburg announced sweeping boardroom changes on Friday 25 September 2015: Porsche leader Matthias Mueller (above) was appointed the new CEO of Volkswagen AG and pledged that his first priority was to clean up the company with a major restructure, new personnel and emergency actions to restore faith among the 80 million Volkswagen owners worldwide.
Dr Herbert Diess, CEO of the VW car division, said: 'We are working at full speed on a technical solution that we will present to partners, to our customers and to the public as swiftly as possible. 
Our aim is to inform our customers as quickly as possible, so that their vehicles comply fully with regulations.
 I assure you that Volkswagen will do everything humanly possible to win back the trust of our customers, the dealerships and the public.'
The story first broke in the US. 
Emissions bodies discovered 2.0-litre diesel engines used a hidden special 'cheat cycle' when placed on a laboratory testbed (the cars can tell because the front wheels are spinning on a dynometer while the rears are stationary).
A simple recall story in the US rapidly escalated into a full-blown global scandal, with American authorities threatening a robust $18 billion fine, VW shares plummeting by a third, Switzerland banning sales of affected diesels (and Italian VW Group dealers following suit, with an eye on potential recall costs) and Wolfsburg hastily committing to the recall of nearly half a million vehicles in the US, and probably more elsewhere in the world.
The boss resigned on Wednesday 23 September 2015. 
He issued this statement: 'I am shocked by the events of the past few days. 
Above all, I am stunned that misconduct on such a scale was possible in the Volkswagen Group. 
As CEO I accept responsibility for the irregularities that have been found in diesel engines and have therefore requested the Supervisory Board to agree on terminating my function as CEO of the Volkswagen Group.
 I am doing this in the interests of the company even though I am not aware of any wrong doing on my part. 
Volkswagen needs a fresh start – also in terms of personnel.
 I am clearing the way for this fresh start with my resignation.
 I have always been driven by my desire to serve this company, especially our customers and employees. 
Volkswagen has been, is and will always be my life. 
The process of clarification and transparency must continue. 
This is the only way to win back trust.
 I am convinced that the Volkswagen Group and its team will overcome this grave crisis.'
The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the California Air Resources Board (CARB) found a 'defeat device' embedded in the engine management systems on the modern Volkswagen 2.0-litre diesel engine described as EA189, designed to lower exhaust levels of certain pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) substantially if the car was being emissions tested. 
When released back to the road, the engine would then pump out normal, higher levels - in tests the EPA found that NOx was 40 times higher when running in normal mode. 
VW admits 'while testing diesel cars of the Volkswagen Group they have detected manipulations that violate American environmental standards.' 
Volkswagen has now admitted the 'dual-mode software map' on affected diesel engines.
Put simply, these cars contained software that turns off emissions controls when driving normally and turns them on when the car is undergoing an emissions test,' said Cynthia Giles, an EPA enforcement officer.
 'We intend to hold Volkswagen responsible. 
VW was concealing the facts from the EPA, the state of California and from consumers. 
We expected better from VW. 
Using a defeat device in cars to evade clean air standards is illegal and a threat to public health.'
The US authorities have the power to levy a fine as high as $37,500 per vehicle affected. Yes, that means a total of $18 billion - in theory. 
It is thought to be unlikely that the lawyers will be quite as exteme, however, since VW is a smaller player in the States (just 13% of all VW cars sold were in the US in 2014). 
But make no mistake: this is a serious setback in Wolfsburg's drive for global domination (in 2015 it became the world's biggest car making group in the first half) and the scandal now looks set to derail that success. 
It has already spelled the end of CEO Martin Winterkorn's leadership in Wolfsburg; his contract was up for renewal this month, and more heads will be likely to roll as independent and external investigations get under way…
Oh yes. So far VW - and Audi, it should be pointed out - have agreed to recall 482,000 four-cylinder Jettas, Beetles, Golfs, Passats and A3s sold since 2008. It must remove the 'defeat device' and clean up the NOx emissions on all the affected cars in the US. 
That is a seriously expensive recall - never mind the questions whether the same software was fitted to group vehicles sold elsewhere in the world. Volkswagen has subsequently admitted that there are around 11 million products using the 2.0-litre TDI engine globally. 
And word is that the company may be facing class legal action from US consumers. 
We sense this is only the tip of the iceberg…
Respected industry watcher Max Warburton of Bernstein Research says the scandal is a major setback for VW: 'The commencement of legal proceedings against VW by the US EPA is profoundly serious,' he said.
 'This is not your usual recall issue, an error in calibration or even a serious safety flaw. 
All of the former can be attributed to bad luck or bad execution - OEMs can normally claim they were trying their best, but fell short. 
This is quite different - the accusation is that VW deliberately set out to mislead regulators with a cleverly hidden piece of software.'
Prof Christian Stadler, of Warwick Business School added: 'No question that this is a big problem for Volkswagen... From 2009 to 2011 Toyota recalled nine million cars for issues leading to unintended acceleration. 
Estimations suggest that Toyota dealers lost more than $2 billion as a result and the company itself also around $2 billion. 
Toyota also settled with the government for $1.2 billion. 
To some extent the cheating by Volkswagen seems more blatant, but the numbers are lower and there are no fatalities involved. 
This suggests that in the "heat of the moment" the long-term effect on Volkswagen may be overstated. 
Sure it will hurt, but maybe not quite as bad as we expect right now.'
Over to Martin Winterkorn, the former chief executive of Volkswagen AG. 
The Board of Management at Volkswagen AG takes these findings very seriously,' he said, shortly before being removed from office. 
I personally am deeply sorry that we have broken the trust of our customers and the public. 
We will cooperate fully with the responsible agencies, with transparency and urgency, to clearly, openly, and completely establish all of the facts of this case.
Volkswagen has ordered an external investigation of this matter... 
We at Volkswagen will do everything that must be done in order to re-establish the trust that so many people have placed in us, and we will do everything necessary in order to reverse the damage this has caused.'
This is all about section 203 (a) (3) (B) of the Clean Air Act.
 And we quote: car makers 'are subject to a civil penalty of up to $3750 for each violation that occurred on or after 13 January 2009. 
In addition, any manufacturer who, on or after 13 January 2009, sold... any new motor vehicle that was not covered by an EPA-issued COC is subject, among other things, to a civil penalty of up to $37,500 for each violation.
 This is where the $18bn fine threat comes from.
There is a back story here, starting in May 2014 when a study in West Virginia University found conflicting emissions results on a 2012 Jetta and 2013 Passat diesel. 
They alerted the CARB and EPA - leading to the current scandal. 
And we fear this one has a long way to run…
Inventive as ever, humans keep finding new ways to crash cars. 
Fortunately, automotive boffins keep coming up with new ways to protect us.
 It’s 100 years since the first airbag patent was filed (by two dentists from Birmingham) and 20 years since they became ubiquitous, but so long as people keep getting hurt in car crashes there’s still scope for airbags to improve, as demonstrated by four new developments.
Honda has co-developed a front airbag that should reduce injuries in many types of crash, particularly angled frontal collisions. 
Mercedes has shown a new rear airbag that’s designed to be gentle with the kids it’s meant to be protecting, and a front bag made with self-driving cars in mind. 
And ZF has demonstrated an external airbag to reduce the severity of injuries from side impacts.  
The Merc and ZF bags are not yet ready for production, but the new airbag jointly developed by Honda and Autoliv (the world’s largest automotive safety supplier) will start appearing on Honda cars, initially in the US, in 2020 (below). 
Instead of the familiar single inflatable chamber it has three bags and a fabric panel. 
The result resembles a baseball catcher’s mitt, catching and slowing the head, and simultaneously pulling the side chambers inward to cradle and protect the head. 
Where a conventional airbag can struggle to stop your head rotating severely or sliding off the inflated bag, painfully, in an angled crash, this should give you a better chance.
Mercedes has a driver airbag fitted in the dash, not the steering wheel, enabling it to be bigger and more effective. 
And its prototype rear airbag uses inflatable tubes, making it better able to adapt to the great variety of passenger shapes, sizes and postures it has to handle. 
The tubes are similar to the air hoses used in ‘air tents’ as an alternative to poles. 
They’re inflated with compressed gas and unfold into a wing-shaped framework. 
A large airbag that fills up with air from the cabin is suspended between the wings. 
In a frontal impact, the airbag can reduce the loads transmitted to a rear passenger’s head and neck by up to 30 per cent, claims Merc.  
ZF says its prototype pre-crash external side airbag system is a world first.
 It deploys milliseconds before a collision, expanding upwards from the door sill. 
This forms an extra crumple zone, but on the side rather than at the front or back, to complement the familiar rigid occupant cell. 
When drivers are no longer required to drive they’ll still need protecting in accidents.
 Merc’s dash-mounted airbag will be ready for the time when the steering wheel can be retracted during autonomous driving.
ZF external side airbags rely on data from sensors being crunched through bespoke algorithms in 150 milliseconds to assess if an unavoidable crash is imminent, and if airbag deployment will help.
Merc’s dash-mounted front airbag requires the steering wheel to be flat-topped – practical now thanks to progress with electric power steering.
Say hello to the spiritual successor to the McLaren F1. 
After a splurge of specs and a rather detailed sketch, we now have a real picture of Gordon Murray’s latest supercar. 
Well, an official rendering of one, at least. 
As shown by the sketch, the new car is dominated by a 400mm ground-effect fan, but the rest is par for the supercar-course. 
Interestingly we can see bits of McLaren F1 DNA along with some Ferrari – and perhaps a little McLaren Longtail, too… 
Alongside the picture we’ve also got more information about how the complex ground-effect aero the T.50 has will work. 
It's been developed using Racing Point F1 team's windtunnel using 40% models, and comes with a six settings, all conducting the car’s moving aerodynamic surfaces.  
Auto mode responds to driver inputs, while Braking mode doubles the level of downforce using the fan – and deploys the rear aerofoils like an airbrake. 
This shortens the braking distance of the T.50 by 10 metres. 
High Downforce mode will increase the amount the car sis forced onto tarmac by 30% – so ideal in twisty bits, while Streamline mode reduces drag by 10%, eases off the downforce and increases top speed and fuel consumption. 
Underbody ducts are shut, and the fan increases the trailing wake of the car, creating what Murray calls a ‘virtual longtail.’ 
Finally a V-max mode works just like Streamline mode, but takes top speed over consumption and gives the car a 30hp boost using the 48V starter motor. 
History is repeating in the best possible way. 
The phrase, so often used as a sombre warning on the perils of dumbly heading down the same well-trodden road to catastrophe, is this time cause for jubilation. 
Gordon Murray, he of the rule-stretching and awesomely successful Formula 1 cars and the majestic McLaren F1 road car, is working on a sequel – a carbon-tubbed, turbo-free, V12 three-seater designed from the ground up to weigh next to nothing and deliver the purest, most engaging driving experience since his last, spectacular crack at the same high-performance puzzle.
It's always annoyed me that no one has done an F1 since the F1,' says Murray, aware that the sentiment could be construed as a lack of modesty.
 'I know it sounds big-headed but nobody's done a pure, lightweight, focused driver's car since – the T.50 will be better in every way.'
The F1, you'll recall, married Murray's flair for original engineering and packaging with McLaren's composites expertise and BMW's naturally-aspirated V12. 
It seated three people and, for all its searing speed, was refined like a GT, with luggage and air-con. 
It wasn't conceived as a track car – but won the Le Mans 24 Hours outright nonetheless.
In broad terms, the T.50 shares much with the F1. 
A carbonfibre tub encloses the three-man cockpit. 
Like every single component on the T.50, the chassis is bespoke and optimised to the car – the key to hitting Murray's target weight of just 980kg. 
How, when a McLaren 600LT weighs more than 1200kg? 
Most cars suffer from committee decisions and carry-over parts. 
You can't get a car under 1000kg unless you start with a clean sheet of paper. 
There isn't a single carry-over component on the T.50.'
The T.50 is neither turbo nor hybrid (there's a 48-volt generator, powering the T.50's 400mm fan – the key to its Brabham BT46B-inspired aero. 
Instead it uses a new V12 from Cosworth (supplier of the far bigger V12 for Aston's Valkyrie) capable of revving beyond 12,000rpm. 
It'll be the lightest V12 ever built – 60kg lighter than the F1's BMW engine – as well as the highest revving,' says Murray.
All 100 T.50s will be built in 2022. 
Given the costs, this could be the last great analogue supercar,' muses Murray. 
I've driven all the latest supercars. 
They're fantastic, but they don't involve you in any way, shape or form. 
Get back into an F1 and the hairs on the back of your neck stand up.
 T.50 will do the same.'
A trained mechanical engineer, it was in F1 – first with Brabham, then McLaren – that Murray's problem-solving virtuosity gained global recognition. 
He founded Gordon Murray Design in 2007. 
The T.50 will be Gordon Murray Automotive's first car.
The T.50 will use a fan at the rear of the engine bay, partly to draw heat out but mainly to manage the car's complex aero.
 'The fan is constantly active, interacting with the series of flaps in the underfloor – the upper body does nothing on the aero side, apart from the airbrake. 
The fan gives us control over drag, downforce and the centre of pressure. 
We can vary all three depending on what's required at that moment.'
We're developing a new power-assisted steering system. 
I haven't driven a car with electric power-steering that I like yet.
I have an Alpine A110 and it's okay. McLaren have stuck to hydraulics, and it's one of the better systems, but it's not as nice as manual steering. 
But I recognise people need assistance. 
So we're developing a completely new assisted steering system that will give you the same kind of feel as the F1's.'
I wondered if a manual was a step too far, and that perhaps a sequential manual might be the way to go – DCT 'boxes are such a non-event – but in the last 15 months I've been lobbied hard by owners to do a manual [as in the F1, above]. 
I was under pressure from the investors to do 300 cars for ?800k [the T.50 will cost ?2.3m before taxes] but I wanted to get to know each owner, and what they want from the car – as I was able to do with the McLaren F1.'
A lot of people are current McLaren F1 [above] owners. 
Then we're getting a bunch of younger people for whom the F1 was their poster car – this is their chance to buy something like an F1 now that they're ?20m. 
And then there's the third group, my age, who are desperate for another analogue supercar they can get involved with.'
The Porsche Experience Center Los Angeles recently celebrated its third anniversary, and we were invited to the party. 
While there, we met with the Center's leading lady and manager, Jennifer Nicole Malacarne, to discuss her journey from cross-country road rallies to running one of the coolest places in Southern California.
Automobile: So, you started with a Honda Prelude. 
How did driving that car as a teenager lead to you becoming a Porsche aficionado?
Jennifer Nicole Malacarne: I bought my Honda Prelude before I even had a driver license, at the age of 15. 
In my neighborhood, I was the only girl with a sports car among all these guys that were driving around in lowered or lifted trucks. 
The guys had their driver's licenses for a couple of years and more driving experience. 
As a female, when you grow up surrounded by guys, you have to beat them at everything. 
Otherwise, they assume that you're not the real deal.
With a sports car, which had more horsepower, I became the expert and quickly discovered that guys in souped-up trucks couldn't beat a Honda Prelude. 
Soon after, I joined a car club, attended car shows, and learned more about cars.
Being one of the few females in the car community opened more doors for me and I accepted every opportunity that came my way. 
I sort of fell into Porsche and 20 years later, I landed my dream job at the Porsche Experience Center Los Angeles. 
This is not just a job; it is my life and a lifestyle that I find myself fully immersed in.
When did you join the Porsche Experience Center Los Angeles team?
Before it was ever announced that a Porsche Experience Center was going to open in Los Angeles, I had the opportunity to meet a few people from Porsche at automotive events.
 I felt that Porsche would be a good brand to work for and started to ask if there was anything I could do at the company.
 We had these conversations for about two years and finally, in 2014, I was at a race in Montreal and I got a call from Porsche—they were hiring. 
They brought me on as the events and sales marketing manager, and in 2016 I got the nod to manage the Porsche Experience Center Los Angeles.
Why did you pursue Porsche and not another car brand?
Prior to making the move to Porsche, I had been working at an agency for top automotive aftermarket brands including Recaro, Brembo, and Pirelli. 
At that time, I was trying to figure out where I wanted to take my career next. 
Knowing I had already worked for the best in aftermarket, I set my sights on joining an OEM brand and considered moving outside of California. 
When I zeroed in on a brand that I would want to be associated with, or maybe the car my future husband would drive, I arrived at Porsche.
Porsche is classy, innovative, and built on integrity. 
It is a brand with a strong heritage and traditional values. 
To that end, Porsche is a brand that says something about who I am as a person.
At one point, your career was heading toward fashion design. 
Do you find that a correlation between fashion and cars?
When I was growing up, my core interests were sports, music, cars, and fashion.
 I thought if I could become a fashion designer it would afford me all the beautiful cars in the world, including a Porsche 918 Spyder. 
I was consumed by fashion, but then all these cool opportunities such as cross-country road rallies and creative marketing for automotive brands came knocking on the door.
My career took a detour from fashion to cars, and I found a brand that is a blend of both. 
Like fashion, Porsche is a lifestyle and I'm not disappointed that my career went down this road. 
Automotive had always been my calling and in many regards, I'm doing a little bit of everything I thought I would do, only the focus is on cars. 
I still don't have a 918 Spyder parked in my garage, but that being said, a career in automotive has afforded me other sports cars that have put big smiles on my face.
Of the eight cross-country rallies you've done, which one was the most challenging?
All of them were challenging, however, one year I drove alone—that experience really tested my skills as a driver. 
The cross-country rallies I ran involved a group of 100 to 150 people, including friends, CEOs of companies, and celebrities, who were driving up to 3,500 miles in six days. 
Usually during these rallies, you had one or more co-pilots to rotate into the driver seat. 
In 2007, I drove without a co-pilot from Montreal to Key West and by the time I made it to Florida, I was beyond exhausted.
I ended up winning the driver of the year award and that was such a huge deal for me because of who I was competing against. 
The trophy sits at my home office and every time I see it, I'm reminded of that young girl who finished on her own.
How involved were you in the ideation and opening of the Porsche Experience Center in L.A.?
I had the privilege of seeing PEC L.A. built from start to finish on a piece of land that was previously a golf course. 
Everything from the art on the walls to the naming conventions of the conference rooms were a part of a presentation that I worked on with a small team of people. 
We worked on the branding together, and our goal was to design a place that felt like you were walking into your living room. We didn't want PEC L.A. to look like a dealership. 
To be able to use my design abilities to create the Speedster Caf?, Restaurant 917, and curate the cars featured in the gallery was not only cool, but a dream come true.
Ultimately, we wanted to make PEC L.A. feel like a second home for Porsche enthusiasts, because if California were its own country, it would be the fifth-largest market for Porsche worldwide.
What's the one accomplishment you're most proud of during your time at PEC L.A.?
When I returned to L.A. from Atlanta to open the Center, myself and the operations manager were tasked with hiring 100 people in three months. 
Trying to find the right talent who could be great ambassadors of the brand was not easy by any means. 
We built a team that exudes a passion for Porsche and anyone who walks through our doors will see that our employees are a direct reflection of the brand. 
It is an accomplishment I am very proud of.
Some might not expect to see a woman managing PEC L.A. 
How important is it that a woman is excelling in this role? 
There are a lot of people who come in and probably don't expect to see a vibrant, young, and smiling woman. 
With the exception of one location, Porsche Experience Centers worldwide are managed by women. 
When you look at what we do at PEC, we are an events company that involves both driving and dining. 
I think it is beneficial to have women in leading roles, as women are great at multitasking and more nurturing.
There is a recurring car meet at PEC L.A. called "Morning Shift.  
" How did it start and what's it all about? 
Morning Shift is a monthly car meet that we host at PEC L.A. one Saturday a month for the Porsche community.
 It is like a cars and coffee, only on a larger scale and with a rotating theme. 
Rather than opening our gates at 6:00 a.m. like most car shows, we open at 8:00 a.m. because not everyone likes to wake up early on Saturdays.
Is PEC L.A. a "members-only" club?
Absolutely not. You don't have to own a Porsche and you don't have to buy one just because you came here. 
The car community in general is welcome at PEC L.A. 
Everyone is invited to have a cup of coffee or tea at Morning Shift and we highly recommend that they check out the cars in our gallery. 
We truly care about all of our first-time visitors and customers, whether they drive a Porsche or not.
We heard you have a 1963 Porsche 356 parked in your garage and that Rod Emory was involved.
In 2008, I had a photo of me taken inside a Speedster and we staged it to make it look like I was driving. 
I sent the photo to my mom and told her this was my dream car and that one day, I would be driving one for real. 
Fast forward to 2014, I got hired by Porsche and four years later, I had the money to buy my dream car.
My good friend Rod Emory knew I was looking for a 356 and he found one in Santa Cruz that was sitting on 14-year-old tires. 
After Rennsport Reunion VI, we flatbedded the car to Rod's garage for restoration, and both of our dads got involved, which was really special. 
And because I work for Porsche, I told Rod that I didn't want my 356 to be modified like John Oates's Emory Outlaw, I wanted a super classy look for my 356. 
Interestingly, the original seatbelts that were in John Oates's 356 are actually in my car.
When you're not making things happen at PEC L.A. or taking your 356 for a cruise, what other hobbies are you devoted to?
Last year, I got into self-defense and I've been training in Krav Maga.
 I take night classes and try to go at least twice if not three times a week.
 I earned my yellow belt a few months ago and am working toward my black belt. 
Self-defense is empowering and a good tool for women to have in their back pocket. 
I probably look a bit unassuming, so it's definitely good for me.
Before we wrap it up, tell us what you think is the coolest thing about the Porsche community.  
If you go to a Porsche gathering, an owner of a million-dollar 918 Spyder will park next to a 914 project car that someone bought at a salvage yard and there's no difference in the people. 
They come together for a common purpose, and Porsche has a such a great way of telling that story. 
Rennsport Reunion at Laguna Seca Raceway, which drew a crowd of more than 81,000 in 2018, is the perfect example.
NHTSA’s Ease-of-Use Ratings let you compare how easy it is to use certain car seat features so you can make informed decisions about the right car seat.
Using the Car Seat Finder, just enter your child’s age, height and weight, then click on “View Detail” in the “Ease-of-Use Ratings” column next to the car seat brand, model and mode (position). Each mode has its own rating.
All NHTSA-rated car seats meet Federal Safety Standards and strict crash performance standards. While all rated seats are safe, they do differ in their ease of use in four basic categories:
Examines the content and clarity of the instructions manual for the child restraint.
Examines the ease of using features that pertain to installing the child restraint in a vehicle.
Examines the content and clarity of the labeling attached to the child restraint.
How are child restraints rated for their Ease of Use?
A child restraint is assessed under each mode (rear-facing, forward-facing, and booster) of proper use and is awarded both an individual category rating and an overall rating.
For each mode, child restraints are individually assessed on the following four categories:
Evaluation of Labels: Examines the content and clarity of the labeling attached to the child restraint.
Evaluation of Instructions: Examines the content and clarity of the instruction manual for the restraint.
Securing the Child: Examines the ease of using features that pertain to securing a child correctly in the restraint.
Vehicle Installation Features: Examines the ease of using features that pertain to installing the child restraint in a vehicle.
Is a seat that receives the highest rating safer than a seat that receives the lowest rating?
No. A child restraint is most effective if correctly installed in a vehicle and if the child is correctly secured in the restraint.
The ratings represent each child restraint’s individual category rating as well as its overall rating for Ease of Use, not safety.
How should consumers interpret NHTSA’s Child Restraint Ease of Use Ratings?
Consumers can use this program to help them evaluate the categories that are most important to them and select a child restraint that meets their needs.
For example, consumers who will be installing their child restraints in multiple vehicles on a regular basis may want a child restraint with the highest rating in the “Vehicle Installation Features” category. Conversely, consumers who are more familiar with child restraints or who rarely remove them from their vehicle may not find this category rating as important.
does the Ease of Use Ratings take into account LATCH (Lower Anchors and Tethers for CHildren)?
Yes. Under the Vehicle Installation Feature, the program evaluates child restraint Ease of Use both with belts and with the LATCH system.
 i want to know what child restraint fits into my car – can NHTSA’s program provide this information?
Because of the various combinations of child restraints and their fit in all vehicles, the costs, and the timeliness associated with providing that kind of “fit” information to consumers, NHTSA has decided against such a program at this time.
Because some vehicle manufacturers have done this for their respective vehicles, consumers can contact their vehicle manufacturer (not the dealer) to see if the manufacturer has this kind of information available.
Many retailers that sell child restraints will also allow consumers to install the child restraint in their vehicle before buying.
Finally, along with NHTSA’s Ease of Use ratings and other child passenger safety programs, consumers can seek installation assistance from one of the thousands of child seat inspection stations across the country.
does NHTSA rate the safety of child restraints?
Not presently, though all child restraints sold in this country are required to comply with the dynamic testing requirements of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) No. 213, Child Restraint Systems.
On May 23, 2005, NHTSA released a Notice of Final Decision on its pilot testing program (comprised of simulated crash situations as well as New Car Assessment Program (NCAP) tests) designed to determine how well child restraints and vehicles protect children.
Based on an analysis of the data, the agency determined that a rating program based on simulated crashes would not provide practicable, readily understandable, or meaningful information to consumers. 
Similar results were obtained when the restraints were subject to NCAP testing.
where can i find out additional information about the Ease of Use program?
For additional information regarding NHTSA’s Ease of Use program, please visit www.nhtsa.gov or call 1-888-327-4236.
TOYOTA GAZOO Racing earned its third win of the 2019-2020 FIA World Endurance Championship (WEC) season with a hard-fought one-two victory in the 8 Hours of Bahrain.
For this race, the World Champions faced a severe success handicap, which reduces hybrid and fuel use per lap, but overcame a strong challenge thanks to strong strategy, fast pit stops and consistent performance, as well as impressive reliability over the 1,390km race.
Mike Conway, Kamui Kobayashi and Jos? Mar?a L?pez, in the #7 TS050 HYBRID, won for the second time this season to retake the lead in the drivers' World Championship.
The #8 TS050 HYBRID of S?bastien Buemi, Kazuki Nakajima and Brendon Hartley, battling a success handicap 0.21secs per lap more than its sister car, finished a lap behind in second to complete a perfect result for the team; a third one-two from four races this season.
A dramatic start saw the #5 Ginetta hit the pole position #1 Rebellion, pushing both cars into a spin which caught up S?bastien in the #8, damaging his front left bodywork. While S?bastien, who had started third, dropped to 10th as a result, Mike avoided the debris from fourth on the grid and took the lead.
Following a safety car, S?bastien got the #8 up to third by the 10th lap, while Mike extended the #7 car's lead as the first fuel stops approached. Mike emerged with a lead of over 30 seconds from the #6 Ginetta but S?bastien, whose #8 required a front bodywork change, came out fourth.
Over the next half an hour, S?bastien pushed to catch the top three and his efforts paid off; after a close fight with the #6 Ginetta, he took third on lap 43. Soon after the 90-minute mark, Mike handed the leading #7 to Kamui while Brendon took over the #8, with both cars on new tyres.
With two-and-a-half hours gone, the race took a twist when the #1 Rebellion, which had been pushing hard to close the gap to Kamui in the #7, lost five minutes in the pits due to a technical problem. 
That lifted Brendon up to second in the #8 car, although more than a minute adrift of Kamui.
TOYOTA GAZOO Racing was in control of the race, with its nearest challenger, the #5 Ginetta, two laps behind following a troubled first part of its race.
With three-and-a-half hours remaining, that car's difficulties continued and it stopped at the side of the track, promoting the #1 Rebellion to third, three laps behind.
Long after darkness fell on the Bahrain International Circuit, and with that comfortable cushion, neither TS050 HYBRID took any risks over the remainder of the race, which finished with only three LMP1 cars running following the retirement of both Ginettas.
Jos? was at the wheel of the #7 when it took the chequered flag to win after 257 laps, establishing an eight-point lead in the drivers' World Championship ahead of the #8 crew, for whom Kazuki brought the car home in second. TOYOTA GAZOO Racing holds a 41-point advantage over Rebellion in the teams' standings.
The World Championship battle will resume in the new year, returning to Austin, Texas following a two-year absence for the 6 Hours of Circuit of the Americas on 23 February, the first of a double-header in the United States with the 1000 Miles of Sebring following on 20 March.
"I am very pleased with this result, particularly because we expected a big challenge to win here in Bahrain.
The team worked hard and focused on delivering the maximum performance in every area.
The first part of the race was exciting and we were expecting a close fight until the end, so it was a pity that our rivals had trouble.?
Now we have come to the end of our racing for 2019, a year when we became World Champions, won Le Mans for a second time and are leading the championship.
 I would like to thank the team for their efforts to achieve this, as well as the fans and the WEC organisation for their contribution to this year of endurance racing. Now we look forward to another memorable year in 2020."
"It is a fantastic result to get a one-two here.
We pushed as hard as we could all day and got a result which we weren't expecting at the start of the week.
That is thanks to a great job by everyone; my team-mates and my team. 
We struggled earlier in the week but together as a team we got the car dialled in.
It's brilliant to win and it's nice to lead the World Championship again."
"To finish the year with a win is great; thanks to the team for doing such a good job here.
We knew it would be a tough race as we had some strong competition but we managed it really well, made no mistakes and had fast pit stops.
Mike and Jos? did a really good job too.
There is still a long way to go in the season but I am really happy and we will be pushing to keep this form going."
"I am very happy with the win. Everyone in the team, including car #8, did a great job this weekend.
Thanks to the team we managed to finish one-two despite very difficult circumstances with the success handicap.
Mike and Kamui both performed really well as usual. It is nice to finish the year with a win.
This means we go into Christmas and New Year able to celebrate the results we achieved together this year."
"It was a tough race for our car. 
At the start, I couldn't avoid getting caught up in the incident between the Ginetta and the Rebellion, and I had contact when I rejoined; there was nothing I could do.
 From there it was difficult to challenge the sister car. But it's a one-two for the team which was the target so I am pleased for that and now I look forward to Austin."
"In the end it was just not our day today and that was clear from the start of the race onwards. 
We knew it was going to be difficult and at one moment we were quite a few places down, so at that point our target was to finish second. 
We managed it and a one-two for the team is good; not ideal for our car but for the team it was the best result we could achieve here."
"Today simply didn't go our way. 
S?b was unlucky at the start; he got caught up in an incident that had nothing to do with him so we had to battle with damage through the whole race. 
We knew it would be hard to beat the sister car but we were motivated to keep them under pressure. 
They drove a very good race, with no mistakes and clean pit stops. 
In the end a one-two for TOYOTA is a great result."
Toyota City, Japan, November 25, 2019?Toyota Motor Corporation (Toyota) announces the launch of its new model "Granace*2," which will go on sale at Toyota vehicle dealers nationwide on December 16. 
The new Granace comes in two grades: Premium grade, a three-row, six-seater priced at 6,500,000 yen*3 and G grade, a four-row, eight-seater priced at 6,200,000 yen*3.
Utilizing a semi-bonnet*4 package, the new Granace is characterized by its superb basic performance?including quietness and driving stability?and classy interior. 
An exterior style that exudes presence, a gorgeous cockpit, and a comfortable rear seating design further accentuate the car's individuality.
Full-size body with a total length of 5 meters or more.
 The model's name is taken from the word "gran," which means "big or great" in Spanish, and "ace," which means "top or excellent person" in English.
Manufacturer's suggested retail prices (including consumption tax).
Vehicle design in which the driver's seat is positioned at the rear end of the powertrain, resulting in a very short bonnet.
The new Granace's large radiator grille is embellished with metallic accents and flows seamlessly into the headlamps, which project in vertical and horizontal directions to create a powerful and bold frontal appearance. 
The distinctive LED daytime running lamps*5 pierce the headlamps and, together with the projective twin-lens LED headlamps that flow into the decorative chrome frame, express a sophistication well-suited to a luxury car.
Cladding panels*6 as well as moldings embellished with metallic accents flowing into the lower edge of the rear bumper suggest an extremely low center of gravity while contributing to a majestic side view.
The rear design complements the front design, and at the same time, the rear-combination taillight LED belts emphasize the car's advanced nature. 
The rear-combination taillights appear to point skywards in a distinctive design and merge with the rear door garnish, expressing an impressively grand style with its high position.
The 17-inch tires are paired with aluminum wheels featuring a sculpted texture and metallic accents for enhanced luxury. 
The radial spoke design makes the wheels appear larger, and highlights their ability to powerfully support the car.
Despite its total length of 5,300 millimeters and total width of 1,970 millimeters, when clad with 17-inch tires the new Granace boasts a minimum turning radius of just 5.6 meters. 
Optimal steering angles and gear ratios enable smooth tire movement to achieve maneuverability ideal for urban driving.
The new Granace comes in a total of four exterior colors, including the arresting and classy White Pearl Crystal Shine option, and a sophisticated and luxurious Black.
Daytime Running Lamp (DRL) A light that is placed on the front of the car and lit in the daytime.
Cladding panels are resin panels attached to the underside of the wheel arches and body.
The new Granace's spacious cabin measures 3,290 millimeters in length and 1,735 millimeters in width. 
Available both in three-row six-seater and four-row eight-seater variants, it caters to a wide range of user needs.
The four seats comprising the second and third rows of the three-row Premium grade feature executive power seating designed for complete relaxation.
In addition to comfortable seating, the car is equipped with a long-slide mechanism, power-reclining function, power ottoman, heated seats, a stowable table, and other amenities that enhance convenience and comfort.
The four-row G grade features executive power seats in the second row, lever-operated adjustable and relaxing captain seats in the third-row, and six-to-four ratio tip-up seats that lift up at the touch of a button in the fourth row. 
The G grade is therefore designed to cater to varying passenger numbers and luggage volumes in a flexible manner.
The low, wide, black-infused instrument panel provides a feeling of luxury, featuring metallic accents on the air-conditioner outlets and wood-grain embellishment in front of the front passenger seat.
The meter hood is wrapped in leather and genuine stitching, while the steering wheel combines genuine leather with wood-grain embellishments, contributing to a quality interior space.
The black-base interior coloring creates a feeling of compactness, while an attractive fromage is used for the ceiling. A black*7 ceiling is available as an option. 
When combined with the seat color, the interior color scheme underscores both the individuality and the elegance of the car.
The width of the slide-door opening is an ample 1,000 millimeters, giving consideration to ease of entry and exit for the rear seats.
Wood grain decorations flow from the back of the front seats toward the side trim as if to wrap the rear seat passengers in comfort. 
The LED side color illumination is gently lit, giving rise to a cool yet calm sophisticated luxury.
The Smart Entry & Push Start System, which features the Welcome Power Slide Door function, is fitted to all grades as standard. 
When the reservation lock function is activated*8, the sliding door unlocks and opens automatically if a user carrying the smart key approaches*9 the vehicle. 
The system also incorporates an active lock function: the Smart Door Lock registers that the slide door is closing, and automatically locks the door after it has closed fully.
Available as an option only on the Premium grade.
Reservation operation using a smart key. The reservation period is about 20 minutes.
The outdoor detection area is within a radius of about 0.7 to 1.5 meters from the sliding door handles on the left and right sides.
The new Granace is equipped with a 1GD 2.8-liter clean diesel engine and six-speed automatic transmission.
 The powertrain provides the smoothness, quietness, and low-speed torque demanded of a luxury vehicle, while realizing fuel efficiency of 10.0 kilometers per liter according to the WLTC test cycle*10.
The use of DPR*11 and a urea SCR*12 system achieves significant reductions in nitrogen oxide emissions, and enables the car to conform to the Post New Long-term Regulations exhaust gas standards.
The new Granace uses a rear-wheel drive layout. 
Based on fundamental principles, the underbody utilizes a straight-ladder structure; this enables the side members to pass straight through and preserves the torsional rigidity of the floor surface. 
Each pillar is also joined to the underbody in a ring-shaped frame, giving rise to a high-rigidity body.
The front of the car uses MacPherson strut-type independent suspension, while the rear employs a trailing-link rigid-axle suspension. 
Despite its high-rigidity body, optimization of the suspension geometry and stroke preservation mean that the car delivers superb ground feel, luxurious ride comfort, and outstanding driving stability.
Vibration-control and soundproofing materials have been effectively distributed throughout the vehicle, and include sandwich steel plates in the dash panels that separate the engine room and the cabin*13. 
These materials help realize a serene quietness suitable for luxury wagons in various road environments.
A wide and low instrument panel provides expansive forward visibility. 
Excellent side visibility is also achieved through adjustments such as slimmer front pillars, expanded triangular windows, and a low beltline.
According to test values from the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. WLTC (World Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Cycle) is an internationally recognized test cycle, and is based on average usage ratios for urban, suburban, and highway driving. 
DPR Diesel Particulate active Reduction System. 
SCR Selective Catalytic Reduction.
Compound steel plates with a layered structure and vibration-control materials sandwiched between the plates.
The new Granace is equipped with both Display Audio (DA) and DCM*14 as standard, providing all customers with access to safe and convenient connected services.
The SmartDeviceLinkTM-compatible TC Smartphone Navigation*15, as well as music and radio apps, can be displayed and operated via DA; LINE Car Navigation enables voice-activated destination-setting, the sending and receiving of LINE messages, and music playback.
Apple CarPlay*16 and Android AutoTM*17 enable everyday map and music apps to be used and operated via DA (available as an option set together with TV; a T-Connect contract is required when signing-up to the service).
Customers can also use conventional on-board navigation functions with the optional T-Connect navigation kit.
Comes standard with the latest version of Toyota Safety Sense, featuring improved sensing functions that make use of the pre-collision safety system that detects pedestrians during the day and at night, as well as cyclists during the day.
The new Granace is equipped with a full range of safety equipment for safety and peace of mind: Intelligent Clearance Sonar with Parking Support Brakes (Stationary Objects) helps mitigate damage from collisions while driving in parking lots and similar environments by detecting stationary objects; when reversing in parking lots, Rear Cross Traffic Auto Brake with Parking Support Brakes (rear approaching vehicle) detects vehicles approaching from left-rear and right-rear directions, and engages the brakes when it senses the possibility of a collision; and Digital Inner Mirror projects images from the rear-facing camera onto the in-mirror display at the flick of a switch.
 DCM Data Communication Module.
SmartDeviceLinkTM is a trademark or registered trademark of SmartDeviceLink Consortium.
By connecting smartphones via Bluetooth? (a trademark of Bluetooth SIG, Inc.), SmartDeviceLinkTM enables navigation apps such as TC Smartphone Navigation and LINE Car Navigation (a registered trademark of LINE Corporation)?which is provided in collaboration with LINE Corporation, and a variety of other apps to be used on Display Audio (some apps may require a USB connection).
Apple CarPlay is a trademark of Apple Inc., registered in the U.S. and other countries.
Android AutoTM is a trademark of Google LLC.
Toyota proudly presents the world premiere of the new "GR Yaris" at Tokyo Auto Salon 2020 to be held from January 10 to 12 in Makuhari Messe, near Tokyo Japan.
GR Yaris" is the second model launched globally from "GR" models, TOYOTA GAZOO Racing's sports car lineup, following last year's return of the legendary Toyota GR Supra*.
TOYOTA GAZOO Racing (TGR) has been developed people and cars by driving the world's roads, competing in a series of demanding races in a variety of categories. 
What's more, we reentered the FIA World Rally Championship (WRC) in 2017. 
TGR claimed five wins in the 2018 season and took the manufacturer's title and Driver's and Co-driver's title in the season of 2019.
TGR announces the arrival of an all-new sports car?a car that incorporates all the technologies, knowledge, and experience learned from WRC.
Toyota's president, under his TGR Master Driver code name "Morizo," has just performed the final test of the car, pushing it to its furthermost limits. 
We are delighted to share the film taken of the test.
In advance of the world premiere at Tokyo Auto Salon, the car will be camouflaged in the signature red-black-and-white TGR colors, and will make its first official dynamic appearance at the Japan TOYOTA GAZOO Racing Festival 2019 on December 15.
Further details of the car's specifications will be announced in due course.
The name given for marketing activity. The name reported to the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism is "Supra."
LOS ANGELES (Nov. 20, 2019)?The fifth-generation Toyota RAV4, on the market for barely a year, is going more places than it has ever gone before.
The arrival of the first-ever RAV4 TRD Off-Road model was announced earlier this year, and today, at the Los Angeles Auto Show, Toyota debuts a new premium, fun-to-drive RAV4 performance model with an estimated 302-horsepower, advanced all-wheel drive, sport-tuned suspension and exclusive design features.
It just happens to also be the first-ever RAV4 plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV). 
And so, in addition to an ability to do 0-60 mph in a projected 5.8 seconds, which is the second quickest acceleration time in the Toyota lineup, it can drive an estimated 39 miles on battery alone on a single charge, which is the highest EV range of any PHEV SUV on the market. 
The RAV4 Prime also has a manufacturer-estimated 90 combined MPGe. Welcome to a new chapter of Toyota SUV performance.
The Toyota RAV4 Prime, a 2021 model that will arrive in summer 2020, breaks ground as the most powerful and quickest RAV4 ever while also being the most fuel-efficient.
The 2021 RAV4 Prime will be available in SE and XSE grades, both emphasizing athletic on-road performance and premium comfort and style. 
With its plug-in hybrid technology advancing, Toyota sees such vehicles as critical to an overall electrification strategy that will also include standard hybrids and battery electric vehicles (BEVs), along with fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) like the second-generation Mirai unveiled in October.
The Toyota RAV4 Prime builds on the RAV4 Hybrid, which is currently the most powerful and most fuel-efficient model in the line with sales up 72% over last year and currently the best-selling hybrid vehicle on the market. 
The RAV4 Prime amplifies both performance and efficiency, reflecting Toyota's 20+ years of hybrid vehicle leadership.
With more powerful motor-generators, a newly developed high-capacity Lithium-Ion battery and a booster converter, the 2021 RAV4 Prime yields an 83-horsepower (hp) jump in total system output over the RAV4 Hybrid and has the most horsepower in its segment. 
The resulting boost in performance is striking: Toyota projects 0-60 mph acceleration in 5.8 seconds which is quicker than the RAV4 Hybrid (7.8 sec.) and in a league with luxury/performance SUVs that come nowhere near this Toyota's remarkable fuel economy. 
And, notably, the RAV4 Prime uses regular-grade gasoline?just not much of it.
A comparison with an older RAV4 offers a vivid illustration of the march of technology. The 2006-2012 RAV4 offered an optional 269-hp, 3.5-liter gas V6 engine that reached 0-60 mph in 6.3-seconds, which is a half-second slower than the RAV4 Prime. 
And, that model's 21 combined MPG fuel economy rating simply pales in comparison.
Toyota engineered the 2021 RAV4 Prime for the performance-oriented driver and is therefore offering it in the sporty SE and XSE grades. 
The SE grade is new for the fifth-generation RAV4 Prime, and the XSE is currently exclusive to the RAV4 Hybrid. 
The SE flaunts its sporty attitude with 18-in. painted and machined alloy wheels and an exclusive front grille design and front lower spoiler. 
Piano black exterior accents and a painted grille/diffuser complete the premium look.
The SE's equipment is quite comprehensive, with standard heated front seats, 8-way power driver's seat with lumbar adjustment, 7-in. 
Multi-Information Display, Blind Spot Monitor, a leather steering wheel and shift knob, power liftgate, and Audio with 8-in. touch-screen and Amazon Alexa, as well as Android Auto and Apple CarPlay compatibility. 
The available Weather & Moonroof Package lets in the sun, moon and stars while keeping the cold at bay with a heated steering wheel, heated rear outboard seats, and windshield wiper de-icer, while rain-sensing windshield wipers add to convenience.
As on the current RAV4 Hybrid XSE, the Prime version of this grade stands apart with a two-tone exterior paint scheme pairing a black roof with select colors, including the striking new-to-RAV4 Supersonic Red. 
Exclusive 19-in. alloy wheels, the largest ever offered on a hybrid RAV4, have a unique two-tone design. 
Vertical LED accent lights give the XSE a distinct look, while the optional Adaptive Front Lighting System (AFS) with headlamp auto-leveling partially aims the beams into turns as the driver steers.
Inside, XSE steps up the sport, luxury and tech with RAV4's first-ever paddle shifters, along with moonroof, unique SofTex synthetic leather seat surfaces, wireless smartphone charging, ambient lighting, auto-dimming rearview mirror with integrated garage door opener and the largest multimedia screen in any RAV4 ever. 
The standard Audio Plus system comes with a 9-in. touch-screen and there is an available Premium Audio that includes Dynamic Navigation and JBL speaker system.
An available Premium Package pushes the RAV4 Prime XSE further with Premium Audio with Dynamic Navigation and JBL speakers, perforated and ventilated SofTex front seats, RAV4's first head-up display, heated rear SofTex outboard seats, heated steering wheel, panoramic moonroof, digital rear-view mirror, memory driver's seat, 4-way power passenger seat, 5-door SmartKey system, kick-type power rear liftgate, Bird's Eye View Monitor and yes, more.
Toyota hybrids have for years demonstrated high performance with low fuel consumption, and now the 2021 RAV4 Prime makes one of the strongest cases yet. 
The RAV4 Prime uses a differently tuned version of the RAV4 Hybrid's 2.5-liter four-cylinder Atkinson-cycle gas engine.
 It produces the same 176 hp as in the hybrid, but with 168 lb.-ft. of peak torque at 2,800 rpm vs. the RAV4 Hybrid's 163 lb.-ft. at 3,600-5,200 rpm.
That makes a useful difference in lower-speed performance, while using more powerful electric motor-generators really juice the RAV4 Prime's responses. 
As in the RAV4 Hybrid, the gas engine and a motor generator work together to deliver dynamic performance, while both motor generators charge the battery.
The RAV4 Prime's interior space isn't compromised by the larger Lithium-Ion battery, as it is mounted under the floor. 
The mounting position also gives the RAV4 Prime a lower center of gravity and enhanced driving stability.
The RAV4 Prime's enhanced heat pump HVAC system, based on Prius Prime's and tailored to fit RAV4 Prime, contributes to an increasing EV range, as energy consumption for cabin temperature control can significantly decrease EV driving range.
The RAV4 Prime employs the same version of Electronic On-Demand All-Wheel Drive (AWD) as the RAV4 Hybrid. 
In both models, a separate rear-mounted electric motor powers the rear wheels when needed, including proactively on acceleration startup and also in reduced-traction conditions.
The AWD system also reduces understeer during cornering for enhanced steering stability. 
Off-pavement, AWD enhances hill-climbing performance. 
A driver-selectable Trail mode makes it possible to get unstuck by braking a spinning wheel and sending torque to the grounding wheel.
With available paddle shifters, the driver can "downshift" to increase the regenerative braking in steps, which fosters greater control when driving in hilly areas, for example.
As on the RAV4 Hybrid, the innovative Predictive Efficient Drive feature acts like an invisible "hyper-miler" co-driver. 
Using the available navigation system, Predictive Efficient Drive essentially reads the road and learns driver patterns to optimize hybrid battery charging and discharging operations based on driving conditions. 
The system accumulates data as the vehicle is driven and "remembers" road features such as hills and stoplights and adjusts the hybrid powertrain operation to maximize efficiency.
The XSE Premium Package adds Rear Cross Traffic Braking (RCTB) and Front and Rear Parking Assist with Automated Braking (PA w/AB).
Starting with the 2020 model year, every Toyota Hybrid Battery Warranty is being increased from 8 years or 100,000 miles to 10 years from original date of first use, or 150,000 miles, whichever comes first.
The TOYOTA GAZOO Racing Rally Challenge Program takes another significant step in 2020, with Japanese driver Takamoto Katsuta set to drive a Toyota Yaris WRC on eight FIA World Rally Championship events.
Katsuta began 2019 by contesting seven WRC rounds in with an R5-specification car?winning the WRC2 class on Rally Chile?alongside two victories from his two initial starts in the Yaris WRC in the Finnish championship. 
Given the strong progress shown, his programme for the second half of the season was revised accordingly, and he stepped up to the top category of the WRC with a Yaris WRC for Rallye Deutschland and Rally de Espa?a. 
This represented a significant achievement for the program, which set out to develop a Japanese WRC driver.
With Katsuta having met his objectives by gaining crucial experience and demonstrating improvement through both events, another milestone is set to follow. 
Next season he will tackle an expanded schedule at rallying's top level, starting all seven European rallies as well as his home event, Rally Japan. 
He will continue to be guided by experienced co-driver Dan Barritt.
"Takamoto has already gained some experience driving the Yaris WRC this year, and just this week he did the final day of our test to prepare for Rallye Monte Carlo, so he's becoming more knowledgeable about the car and gaining a better understanding of how a World Rally Car behaves, compared to what he's driven before. 
In Spain we had already seen him set some good stage times, especially on his second time through the stages.
 Now he just needs more experience, which will help him to improve his consistency.
 I'm very confident that he will show good things throughout his programme of events in 2020."
"I expect Taka and Dan to continue developing constantly during our 2020 programme. 
They already made big steps in 2019 with their speed in the Yaris in the two WRC events they did. 
Having said that, improving their stage times now gets harder and harder as the margins at the top level are so small.
 In our calendar for next season there are some familiar events where Taka can push more, and some events that will have to be taken purely for learning more about the Yaris and the conditions.
 We will focus our training on all the small details that can be made better to keep learning more and to reach the top level in this demanding sport."
"I must say thank you very much to TOYOTA GAZOO Racing and Tommi M?kinen Racing for giving me this amazing opportunity. 
2020 will be a new challenge for me. 
I have good experience of each event from this year, but to be able to compete at the top level in a World Rally Car is a big step up. 
Although my first events in the Yaris WRC this year were very positive, I know that I still need to improve my driving and my pace-notes to reach a higher level. 
I'm really motivated to do that and I'm looking forward to seeing how much progress I can make next year. 
I hope that I can show a good step between the beginning and the end of the season, and I'm really excited for it to start."
Born in Aichi, Japan on March 17, 1993. Katsuta drove in his first kart race at the age of 12 and at age 18 he won the Formula Challenge Japan (FCJ). 
He placed second in the F3 series at age 20, and since 2014 he has competed in F3 in addition to notching his first JN5 class win in the eighth round of the Japanese Rally Championship. 
In the seventh round of the 2017 FIA World Rally Championship (Italy), he took his first podium by finishing third in the WRC2 class.
 In 2018 he won Rally Sweden, the second round of World Rally Championship in the WRC2 class. 
In 2019 he won WRC2 on Rally Chile, and he claimed two wins in the Finnish Rally Championship before starting his first WRC events in a Toyota Yaris WRC in Germany and Spain.
Toyota proudly presents the world premiere of the new "GR Yaris" at Tokyo Auto Salon 2020 to be held from January 10 to 12 in Makuhari Messe, near Tokyo Japan.
"GR Yaris" is the second model launched globally from "GR" models, TOYOTA GAZOO Racing's sports car lineup, following last year's return of the legendary Toyota GR Supra*.
TOYOTA GAZOO Racing (TGR) has been developed people and cars by driving the world's roads, competing in a series of demanding races in a variety of categories. 
What's more, we reentered the FIA World Rally Championship (WRC) in 2017. 
TGR claimed five wins in the 2018 season and took the manufacturer's title and Driver's and Co-driver's title in the season of 2019.
TGR announces the arrival of an all-new sports car?a car that incorporates all the technologies, knowledge, and experience learned from WRC.
Toyota's president, under his TGR Master Driver code name "Morizo," has just performed the final test of the car, pushing it to its furthermost limits. 
We are delighted to share the film taken of the test.
In advance of the world premiere at Tokyo Auto Salon, the car will be camouflaged in the signature red-black-and-white TGR colors, and will make its first official dynamic appearance at the Japan TOYOTA GAZOO Racing Festival 2019 on December 15.
Further details of the car's specifications will be announced in due course.
The name given for marketing activity. 
The name reported to the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism is "Supra."
TOYOTA GAZOO Racing returns to Bahrain to bring the curtain down on a highly-successful year with the fourth round of the 2019-2020 FIA World Endurance Championship (WEC).
The team returns for the 8 Hours of Bahrain as World Champions and in pole position to retain both drivers' and teams' titles, with two wins to their credit so far and five races remaining.
TOYOTA GAZOO Racing leads its standings by 27 points while the #8 TS050 HYBRID crew of S?bastien Buemi, Kazuki Nakajima and Brendon Hartley top the drivers' championship by just three points from team-mates Mike Conway, Kamui Kobayashi and Jos? Mar?a L?pez in the #7 car.
However, victory for Rebellion Racing last time out in Shanghai cut that advantage and illustrated the unprecedented challenge to the efficiency of the TS050 HYBRID in its farewell season. 
The #8 car finished second while the #7 was third in China.
Compared to its last visit to Bahrain in 2017, this weekend the TS050 HYBRIDs are permitted less hybrid power and less fuel per lap, whilst also weighing more, as part of WEC's success handicap system. 
As championship leader, the #8 car carries maximum success handicap of 2.72secs per lap, with the #7 having 2.51secs per lap.
TOYOTA GAZOO Racing has positive memories of the 5.412km, 15-turn Bahrain International Circuit, having won three times there in WEC. 
The team's last visit to the Gulf State came at the end of the 2017 season, with S?bastien, Kazuki and Anthony Davidson in the #8 TS050 HYBRID winning their fifth race of the year.
For just the second time in WEC history after last season's Sebring race, Saturday's race will be contested over eight hours. 
It will begin at 3pm local time and run into darkness, with the chequered flag scheduled to fly at 11pm.
Air temperatures around 25°C can be expected during the day, but when the sun sets track temperatures are likely to drop. 
Therefore, the week's schedule is designed to give teams chance to experience all conditions, with Thursday's three hours of practice split over a day and a night session.
At the conclusion of Saturday's race, the team has just 11 hours before it will be in action again, with the WEC rookie test beginning at 10am on Sunday. 
TOYOTA GAZOO Racing will give Thomas Laurent, Kenta Yamashita and Nyck de Vries a chance to drive the TS050 HYBRIDs.
That is not the end of the action in the Gulf state though. 
Sunday evening will see the official WEC prize-giving ceremony for the 2018-2019 season, which ended in June at Le Mans. 
TOYOTA GAZOO Racing will collect its teams' World Championship trophy, while S?bastien, Kazuki and Fernando Alonso will be presented with their trophies.
"We are ready for Bahrain and looking forward to another exciting fight. 
Realistically we achieved the best result available in Shanghai but it is still painful to lose, so we are very motivated to return to the top step of the podium in Bahrain. 
To challenge for the win, we will have to work strongly together as a team to demonstrate the incredible efficiency of the TS050 HYBRID. 
Although we are only at the mid-point of our season, this is the final race of the year so I know everyone is pushing hard to earn an early Christmas present in Bahrain."
"I really like the Bahrain circuit; it has a nice flow to it and I have some great memories there. 
I won my first WEC race in Bahrain in 2014 and I've often been on the podium there.
 It's an eight-hour race and I enjoy the longer ones because more can happen; there's more action, more driving and more fun. 
I think a longer race will be good for us."
"I enjoy racing in Bahrain and Saturday's race should be an interesting one because it is longer than usual and will also go into darkness. 
We've got to do our job and get the maximum from our car for the full eight hours and then let's see where we are; I hope we can achieve a strong result. 
The team won two years ago in Bahrain so that will be our target again."
"I hope Bahrain is better for us than Shanghai; I expect it will be because the track is more suited to the efficiency of our TS050 HYBRID. I am sure we can be more competitive there so I am looking forward to it. 
Rebellion performed well in Shanghai. 
We knew the challenge would come from the non-hybrid LMP1 cars and we're ready for the fight in Bahrain."
"I like racing in Bahrain because I enjoy the track and the atmosphere, plus some of my family are living there too.
 I also have very good memories because I won my first WEC race in Bahrain in 2013 and became World Champion a year later. 
It's also a cool race to participate in because we start in the day and finish in the night. I'm looking forward to it."
"I am confident we will be more competitive in Bahrain, although again it will not be an easy race because the opposition will be quick. 
My last memory of Bahrain was winning in 2017 in the final race against Porsche. 
This time the race will be longer but hopefully we can achieve the same result on the TS050 HYBRID's last visit to Bahrain."
"We head to Bahrain leading the drivers' championship. 
Although this also means we will carry the biggest success handicap I still feel optimistic that it will be a close race and we will have a chance to take the victory.
 I'm feeling more and more comfortable in the team and am taking a lot of pleasure every time I drive the TS050 HYBRID in its last season."
Toyota City, Japan, November 25, 2019?Toyota Motor Corporation (Toyota) announces the launch of its new model "Granace*2," which will go on sale at Toyota vehicle dealers nationwide on December 16. 
The new Granace comes in two grades: Premium grade, a three-row, six-seater priced at 6,500,000 yen*3 and G grade, a four-row, eight-seater priced at 6,200,000 yen*3.
Utilizing a semi-bonnet*4 package, the new Granace is characterized by its superb basic performance?including quietness and driving stability?and classy interior. 
An exterior style that exudes presence, a gorgeous cockpit, and a comfortable rear seating design further accentuate the car's individuality.
Full-size body with a total length of 5 meters or more.
The model's name is taken from the word "gran," which means "big or great" in Spanish, and "ace," which means "top or excellent person" in English.
Manufacturer's suggested retail prices (including consumption tax).
Vehicle design in which the driver's seat is positioned at the rear end of the powertrain, resulting in a very short bonnet.
The new Granace's large radiator grille is embellished with metallic accents and flows seamlessly into the headlamps, which project in vertical and horizontal directions to create a powerful and bold frontal appearance. 
The distinctive LED daytime running lamps*5 pierce the headlamps and, together with the projective twin-lens LED headlamps that flow into the decorative chrome frame, express a sophistication well-suited to a luxury car.
Cladding panels*6 as well as moldings embellished with metallic accents flowing into the lower edge of the rear bumper suggest an extremely low center of gravity while contributing to a majestic side view.
The rear design complements the front design, and at the same time, the rear-combination taillight LED belts emphasize the car's advanced nature. 
The rear-combination taillights appear to point skywards in a distinctive design and merge with the rear door garnish, expressing an impressively grand style with its high position.
The 17-inch tires are paired with aluminum wheels featuring a sculpted texture and metallic accents for enhanced luxury. 
The radial spoke design makes the wheels appear larger, and highlights their ability to powerfully support the car.
Despite its total length of 5,300 millimeters and total width of 1,970 millimeters, when clad with 17-inch tires the new Granace boasts a minimum turning radius of just 5.6 meters. 
Optimal steering angles and gear ratios enable smooth tire movement to achieve maneuverability ideal for urban driving.
The new Granace comes in a total of four exterior colors, including the arresting and classy White Pearl Crystal Shine option, and a sophisticated and luxurious Black.
Daytime Running Lamp (DRL) A light that is placed on the front of the car and lit in the daytime.
Cladding panels are resin panels attached to the underside of the wheel arches and body.
The new Granace's spacious cabin measures 3,290 millimeters in length and 1,735 millimeters in width. 
Available both in three-row six-seater and four-row eight-seater variants, it caters to a wide range of user needs.
The four seats comprising the second and third rows of the three-row Premium grade feature executive power seating designed for complete relaxation.
 In addition to comfortable seating, the car is equipped with a long-slide mechanism, power-reclining function, power ottoman, heated seats, a stowable table, and other amenities that enhance convenience and comfort.
The four-row G grade features executive power seats in the second row, lever-operated adjustable and relaxing captain seats in the third-row, and six-to-four ratio tip-up seats that lift up at the touch of a button in the fourth row. 
The G grade is therefore designed to cater to varying passenger numbers and luggage volumes in a flexible manner.
The low, wide, black-infused instrument panel provides a feeling of luxury, featuring metallic accents on the air-conditioner outlets and wood-grain embellishment in front of the front passenger seat.
The meter hood is wrapped in leather and genuine stitching, while the steering wheel combines genuine leather with wood-grain embellishments, contributing to a quality interior space.
The black-base interior coloring creates a feeling of compactness, while an attractive fromage is used for the ceiling. 
A black*7 ceiling is available as an option.
 When combined with the seat color, the interior color scheme underscores both the individuality and the elegance of the car.
The width of the slide-door opening is an ample 1,000 millimeters, giving consideration to ease of entry and exit for the rear seats.
Wood grain decorations flow from the back of the front seats toward the side trim as if to wrap the rear seat passengers in comfort. 
The LED side color illumination is gently lit, giving rise to a cool yet calm sophisticated luxury.
The Smart Entry & Push Start System, which features the Welcome Power Slide Door function, is fitted to all grades as standard. 
When the reservation lock function is activated*8, the sliding door unlocks and opens automatically if a user carrying the smart key approaches*9 the vehicle. 
The system also incorporates an active lock function: the Smart Door Lock registers that the slide door is closing, and automatically locks the door after it has closed fully.
Available as an option only on the Premium grade.
Reservation operation using a smart key. 
The reservation period is about 20 minutes.
The outdoor detection area is within a radius of about 0.7 to 1.5 meters from the sliding door handles on the left and right sides.
The new Granace is equipped with a 1GD 2.8-liter clean diesel engine and six-speed automatic transmission. 
The powertrain provides the smoothness, quietness, and low-speed torque demanded of a luxury vehicle, while realizing fuel efficiency of 10.0 kilometers per liter according to the WLTC test cycle*10.
The use of DPR*11 and a urea SCR*12 system achieves significant reductions in nitrogen oxide emissions, and enables the car to conform to the Post New Long-term Regulations exhaust gas standards.
The new Granace uses a rear-wheel drive layout. 
Based on fundamental principles, the underbody utilizes a straight-ladder structure; this enables the side members to pass straight through and preserves the torsional rigidity of the floor surface. 
Each pillar is also joined to the underbody in a ring-shaped frame, giving rise to a high-rigidity body.
The front of the car uses MacPherson strut-type independent suspension, while the rear employs a trailing-link rigid-axle suspension. 
Despite its high-rigidity body, optimization of the suspension geometry and stroke preservation mean that the car delivers superb ground feel, luxurious ride comfort, and outstanding driving stability.
Vibration-control and soundproofing materials have been effectively distributed throughout the vehicle, and include sandwich steel plates in the dash panels that separate the engine room and the cabin*13. 
These materials help realize a serene quietness suitable for luxury wagons in various road environments.
A wide and low instrument panel provides expansive forward visibility. 
Excellent side visibility is also achieved through adjustments such as slimmer front pillars, expanded triangular windows, and a low beltline.
According to test values from the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. WLTC (World Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Cycle) is an internationally recognized test cycle, and is based on average usage ratios for urban, suburban, and highway driving.
DPR Diesel Particulate active Reduction System.
SCR Selective Catalytic Reduction.
Compound steel plates with a layered structure and vibration-control materials sandwiched between the plates.
The new Granace is equipped with both Display Audio (DA) and DCM*14 as standard, providing all customers with access to safe and convenient connected services.
The SmartDeviceLinkTM-compatible TC Smartphone Navigation*15, as well as music and radio apps, can be displayed and operated via DA; LINE Car Navigation enables voice-activated destination-setting, the sending and receiving of LINE messages, and music playback.
Apple CarPlay*16 and Android AutoTM*17 enable everyday map and music apps to be used and operated via DA (available as an option set together with TV; a T-Connect contract is required when signing-up to the service).
Customers can also use conventional on-board navigation functions with the optional T-Connect navigation kit.
Comes standard with the latest version of Toyota Safety Sense, featuring improved sensing functions that make use of the pre-collision safety system that detects pedestrians during the day and at night, as well as cyclists during the day.
The new Granace is equipped with a full range of safety equipment for safety and peace of mind: Intelligent Clearance Sonar with Parking Support Brakes (Stationary Objects) helps mitigate damage from collisions while driving in parking lots and similar environments by detecting stationary objects; when reversing in parking lots, Rear Cross Traffic Auto Brake with Parking Support Brakes (rear approaching vehicle) detects vehicles approaching from left-rear and right-rear directions, and engages the brakes when it senses the possibility of a collision; and Digital Inner Mirror projects images from the rear-facing camera onto the in-mirror display at the flick of a switch.
DCM Data Communication Module.
SmartDeviceLinkTM is a trademark or registered trademark of SmartDeviceLink Consortium.
By connecting smartphones via Bluetooth? (a trademark of Bluetooth SIG, Inc.), SmartDeviceLinkTM enables navigation apps such as TC Smartphone Navigation and LINE Car Navigation (a registered trademark of LINE Corporation)?which is provided in collaboration with LINE Corporation, and a variety of other apps to be used on Display Audio (some apps may require a USB connection).
Apple CarPlay is a trademark of Apple Inc., registered in the U.S. and other countries.
Android AutoTM is a trademark of Google LLC.
When we say "Connected", we mean "People connected"?a society in which people are linked, and a society in which the warmth and kindness of people can be felt.
President Akio Toyoda's remarks from the Tokyo Motor Show 2019 press conference held October 23 at 13:30 can be viewed in the video below.
Hello, everyone!
Thank you for coming to the Toyota booth press briefing today.
I'm Akio Toyoda, the VTuber Morizo.
Well, today, what I want to talk about is not cars, but people.
I will move around a bit as I talk.
This time, I think I want to continue on as this character.
In line with my own expressions, it laughs and shows surprise. 
What do you think?
 For example, even if we are a distance away, can't you kind of feel that I'm right beside you?
People instantly process enormous amounts of information in this way and then reach conclusions.
That's exactly why, when various kinds of information are linked, one would expect communities, society, and, of course, cars, to become more centered on people.
That's why we made our Toyota booth this time one in which visitors can experience a future society of mobility centered on people.
Well, I think it's about time for us to have a look.
This e-Palette is scheduled to debut in front of everyone at the time of next year's Olympic and Paralympic Games Tokyo 2020.
In the future, the e-Palette will be able to be an office, a shop, or even a hotel.
 It will be able to become various kinds of services, and it will go to people.
Our booth this time does not feature a single car "to be launched next year". 
All that is found here are forms of mobility that link to society and communities and that provide modes of getting around and services to people.
Wow, what do you think? 
Doesn't it excite you to see a future filled with such forms of mobility? 
For example, we will even have something like this?the e-Chargeair.
This is the e-RACER!
The cars in everyone's garages will all be sports cars, like this e-RACER.
Well, that's a little overstating it, but... wanting to move about as one wishes, ...and wanting to go faster and farther...are, I think, universal human desires.
The birth of the automobile led to 15 million horses being replaced by cars in the United States.
But still, we have racehorses.
The joy of riding a horse can hold its own against or even outdo what cars have to offer. 
If there is an obstacle, a horse can avoid it. If there is a hole in the ground, a horse can make its own judgement and jump over it.
Horses can communicate with people and their hearts. 
For people who ride them, horses are irreplaceable.
Through the evolution of artificial intelligence, I think that cars, too, can also become able to communicate with people and their hearts.
That's right... I think cars of the future will be like horses.
If we look at shared forms of mobility, such as the e-Palette, as if they were horse carriages, forms of mobility owned by individuals, like the e-RACER, would be "beloved horses".
I would say that this means that our future society of mobility will be a society in which horse carriages and "beloved horses" co-exist.
And what people want of "beloved horses" is heartfelt communication and the joy of moving together.
Well, here is another sidekick that offers heartfelt communication.
 I think maybe I could even call it a "magic broom".
If you visit the Toyota booth, you can hop on like this and give it a try. 
But it's not yet ready to fly…
I'll get on the broom and give you a quick introduction to our booth.
First, at the reception counter, you make a residency card.
 You take it and, if you try out various things in our booth, you can accumulate points.
For example, this is a future health check that can tell you how your body is doing if you get on it.
And here, you can experience what it will be like to change clothes in the future. 
You can choose clothes that suit you even without putting them on.
There are other various things that you can experience. 
The more you try what we have, the more points you will accumulate.
And this is a Toyota convenience store. 
The points you've accumulated can be exchanged for various items, and we tried hard to make some good things.
Thank you, Morizo!
Our theme is life in the future centered on people. 
Our first objective is to deliver fun to those who visit us. 
We feel that it is important to have fun. 
That same feeling extends to the importance we place on the concept of "FUN TO DRIVE", even when it comes to future mobility.
My aim today was to help you get to know the Toyota booth. 
We have prepared our new cars for you to see at another place. 
Please go have a look.
At any rate, today, the focus is people.
 Society today is rapidly advancing toward automation, such as in the form of "artificial intelligence" and "robotics".
At the same time, concerns such as "Might the day not come when robots dominate people?" are being voiced.
Just how should Toyota respond to such changes in the times?
I think a hint can be found in the history of our predecessors.
The Toyota Production System contains a hint.
Toyota's roots are found in the automatic loom invented by Sakichi Toyoda.
The greatest trait of that invention was that, if a single thread broke, the loom would automatically stop.
Of course, that helped to prevent the making of defective products. 
But it was based on the thinking that we shouldn't turn people into machine watchers.
At Toyota, we call this "automation with people", or "intelligent automation".
To this "intelligent automation", Kiichiro Toyoda, who took up the challenge of producing automobiles, added the "make only what is needed, when it is needed, and in the amount needed" thinking of "just-in-time".
This means being just a bit ahead of the expectations of our customers.
This is the ultimate in manufacturing omotenashi (hospitality that sincerely and warmheartedly anticipates and fulfills people's needs).
The two pillars of the Toyota Production System?"Intelligent automation" and "Just-in-time".
What both of these have in common is placing of people at the center.
And that's exactly why people will continue to be at the center of the future that we envision.
I believe that the more automation advances, the more the ability of human beings will be put to the test.
For example, people's warmth and kindness...and also the hearts that feel such...
What we want to express through our booth is the concept of "people connected". "
People connected" refers to a society in which people are linked?a society in which the warmth and kindness of people can be felt.
The key words are "people connected".
Toyota believes in the power of people. 
The power of people…
Please look forward to what Toyota will achieve.
Toyota City, Japan, February 26, 2018?Toyota Motor Corporation (Toyota) announces that it has developed a new continuously variable transmission (CVT), 6-speed manual transmission, 2.0-liter engine, 2.0-liter hybrid system, and 4WD systems based on the Toyota New Global Architecture (TNGA), a development framework aimed at making ever-better cars. 
The new technologies offer both superb driving performance and high environmental performance.
The new continuously variable transmission features a launch gear, a world first, to significantly improve transmission efficiency at low speeds when compared to existing CVTs.
 It realizes both direct and smooth driving response to accelerator application, as well as superior fuel efficiency.
The basic function of any transmission system is to achieve transmission efficiency, high-efficiency engine ranges, and highly responsive gear changes. 
To improve these functions, Toyota has striven to reduce mechanical loss, adopt a wider gear range, and improve shift tracking. 
These initiatives have resulted in a direct and smooth driving experience with superior fuel efficiency, which has been improved by six percent over the existing transmission system.
The new powertrain unit features the world's first launch gear in a passenger vehicle CVT1, which facilitates improved transmission efficiency in lower gear ratios where belt efficiency is poor. 
The transmission system utilizes gear drive when starting from a full stop, resulting in powerful acceleration while at the same time resolving the momentary sluggish feeling that was previously present during accelerator operation. 
Both smooth and comfortable launch performance are realized. 
When switching from gear drive to belt drive, the transmission system uses highly responsive gear change control technologies cultivated from AT technology.
In line with the adoption of a launch gear, belt use is now specified for higher gear ratios. 
This new setup not only improves the efficiency of belt use, but also enables the adoption of wider gear ranges, thereby realizing a class-leading gear ratio range of 7.5 for the 2.0-liter class1.
The adoption of launch gears results in reduced input load. 
This enables the size of both belt and pulley components to be reduced. 
The belt angle has been narrowed and pulley diameters reduced, resulting in shifting speeds that are 20 percent faster. 
Both powerful and rhythmic acceleration are realized.
Toyota has also developed a new manual transmission in response to global needs, particularly those in Europe. 
Compared to the existing version, the mass of the new system has been reduced by seven kilograms and total length by 24 millimeters. 
This makes it one of the world's smallest transmissions1, and its small size contributes to improved fuel efficiency. 
The 6MT also offers world-leading transmission efficiency1, while the use of iMT (Intelligent Manual Transmission) controls, which automatically adjust engine rotations when changing gears, ensures smooth gear shifting?free of uncomfortable recoils?for the driver.
Toyota's new Dynamic Force Engine adopts high-speed combustion technologies and a variable control system. 
It also achieves greater thermal efficiency, resulting in high output, due to a reduction in energy loss associated with exhaust and cooling systems, the movement of mechanical parts, and other aspects. 
As a result, the newly developed 2.0-liter gasoline vehicle and hybrid vehicle engines achieve world-leading thermal efficiencies of 40 percent and 41 percent respectively1.
 In addition, compared to existing engines, the new engines achieve increased torque at all engine speeds?from low to high rotations?and will comply with expected future exhaust regulations in each country in advance.
Toyota has developed a new hybrid system for 2.0-liter engines, which applies the same size-reducing, weight-reducing, and loss-reducing technologies used in the fourth-generation Prius. 
The new system realizes improved driving performance while retaining superior fuel efficiency. 
When accelerating, the hybrid system reduces engine rotations while drawing increased electric power from the battery, thereby delivering a linear and lengthened sense of acceleration.
Toyota has developed two new 4WD systems with the aim of improving fuel efficiency and achieving high 4WD handling, stability, and off-road performance.
The new Dynamic Torque Vectoring AWD system is used in gasoline engine vehicles. 
By adopting a torque vectoring mechanism, which independently distributes torque to the left and right rear wheels according to driving conditions, the Dynamic Torque Vectoring AWD system enables the driver to steer the vehicle exactly as intended.
 It achieves high off-road performance even on the toughest roads. 
It also incorporates a disconnect mechanism, which features the world's first ratchet-type dog clutches1 on both the front and rear wheel shafts. 
These clutches stop the drive system rotations, which transmit driving force to rear wheels when in 2WD mode, significantly reducing energy loss and improving fuel efficiency.
The new E-Four system will be used in hybrid vehicles.
 The system increases total torque to the rear wheels?which are electrically driven?by 30 percent compared to existing versions. 
By adopting a new control system that optimally distributes torque to the rear wheels based on the driving conditions, the E-Four system offers high off-road performance, handling, and stability.
Moreover, both the Dynamic Torque Vectoring AWD system and the new E-Four system feature AWD Integrated Management (AIM), which harmonizes engine, transmission, braking, and 4WD systems to offer superb handling and stability regardless of road surface conditions.
Toyota intends to expand the number of models equipped with the newly announced powertrain units globally from this spring onward.
The powertrain units will not only contribute to improved environmental and driving performance of conventional gasoline engine vehicles, but the core technologies will be reflected in the performance improvement of electrified vehicles, including hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), battery electric vehicles (BEVs), and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). 
These technologies play a part in Toyota's pursuit of the popularization of electrified vehicles.
Regarding TNGA-based powertrains, Toyota has already announced plans to introduce 17 versions of nine engines, 10 versions of four transmissions, and 10 versions of six hybrid systems by the end of 2021. 
The new continuously variable transmission, 6-speed manual transmission, 2.0-liter engine, and 2.0-liter hybrid system represent four of the planned components.
Within the next five-years to the end of 2023, Toyota aims to have TNGA-based powertrain units installed in approximately 80 percent of Toyota-brand and Lexus-brand vehicles sold annually in Japan, the United States, Europe, and China. 
Toyota forecasts that the TNGA-based powertrain units alone will improve fuel efficiency enough to reduce CO2 emissions from Toyota vehicles by more than 18 percent.
Toyota City, Japan, October 11, 2019?Toyota Motor Corporation (Toyota) today announced the "LQ", a concept vehicle that leverages advanced technology to build an emotional bond between car and driver. 
The next generation of the Toyota "Concept-i", a concept vehicle first exhibited at the 2017 Consumer Electronics Show, LQ is equipped with automated driving capabilities and "Yui," a powerful artificial intelligence-powered interactive agent designed to learn from the driver and deliver a personalized mobility experience.
"In the past, our love for cars was built on their ability to take us to distant places and enable our adventures," said LQ development leader Daisuke Ido. 
"Advanced technology gives us the power to match customer lifestyles with new opportunities for excitement and engagement. 
With the LQ, we are proud to propose a vehicle that can deliver a personalized experience, meet each driver's unique mobility needs, and build an even stronger bond between car and driver."
As a mobility company, Toyota believes that when people are free to move, anything is possible. 
This vision is built on an understanding that mobility goes beyond physical transportation to include the human need to be moved and engaged emotionally.
LQ follows this philosophy under a core development theme of "Learn, Grow, Love." Yui and LQ's automated driving technology, both developed in partnership with Toyota Research Institute (TRI), combine to create a unique mobility experience that builds the relationship between vehicle and driver by learning from and responding to individual preferences and needs. 
The name expresses Toyota's hope that this approach will "cue" the development of future vehicles that enhance the relationship between car and driver.
LQ will be on public display at the "Future Expo", a special exhibition of the 2019 Tokyo Motor Show1 from October 24 to November 4. 
In addition, Toyota today announced "Toyota Yui Project Tours 2020", a public test-drive event scheduled to run from June to September 2020. 
The public will have the opportunity to register for a chance to be selected to experience the LQ and the "Yui" AI. 
By using a smartphone app in advance to provide their interests and preferences, selected participants will join a test drive of the "LQ" with "Yui".
LQ features an on-board artificial intelligence agent named "Yui" that provides a personalized mobility experience based on the driver's emotional state and alertness. 
In order to ensure safety and comfort, the AI can engage with the driver using interactive voice communications, in-seat functions designed to increase alertness or reduce stress, in-vehicle illumination, air conditioning, fragrances and other human-machine interactions (HMI). 
Yui can also select and play music based on the driving environment and provide real-time information on topics of interest to the driver.
Going forward, Toyota will continue to work on further expanding Yui's implementation through integration with other products such as smartphones.
The LQ is equipped with an SAE2 Level 4 equivalent automated driving function.
The system eliminates the need to search for parking spaces by automatically driving between a drop-off spot and an assigned parking space in nearby parking lot, improving accessibility for those with mobility limitations including seniors, people with physical disabilities, pregnant women, customers with infants, and anyone who has difficulty parking. 
The system also maximizes space in the parking lot by reducing clearance between adjacent vehicles to 20 centimeters.
Automated parking uses an on-vehicle system that identifies the current position of the vehicle using multiple cameras, sonar and radar, 2D road mapping, cameras installed in the parking lot and a control center.
 Vehicle sensors and parking lot cameras also monitor for other vehicles and pedestrians on the automated driving route, automatically stopping the vehicle when another vehicle or a pedestrian is detected.
LQ's Augmented Reality Head's Up Display (AR-HUD) uses Augmented Reality (AR) to expand the information display area of the Head's Up Display (HUD), supporting safe driving by reducing driver eye movement.
Driving information such as lane warnings, road signs, and route guidance can be displayed in a three-dimensional and easy-to-understand manner over the scenery seen through the windshield.
 The system helps keep the driver's eyes on the road thanks to a large screen display (equivalent to 230 inches) that has a depth of 7 m to 41 m ahead of the vehicle.
LQ's advanced seating system consists of multiple inflatable air bladders embedded into the seat with an in-seat air conditioning system to help keep the driver awake or relaxed depending on the driving situation.
When the system recognizes that the driver is tired, it inflates the air bladder in the seat back to support an upright sitting posture and directs cool air from the ventilation system located in the seat.
When conditions allow the driver to relax, such as in automated driving mode, the air bladder in the seat back gradually inflates and contracts to encourage abdominal breathing.
LQ uses the roof and floor mat areas as an intuitive communications platform to share information between the vehicle and passengers. 
Embedded lighting displays different colors to indicate automated or manual driving mode, and lights up different foot wells to indicate which passenger Yui is addressing.
LQ can also communicate information such as road surface conditions to people inside and outside of the vehicle using the Digital Micromirror Device (DMD) installed in its headlights. 
The system can activate one million tiny embedded mirrors to project complex figures on the road ahead.
A first for Toyota, LQ's dashboard and meters are displayed using organic LEDs (OLEDs). 
The advanced instrument panel design wraps around the driver while ensuring high visibility.
LQ features a newly developed catalyst coating that decomposes ozone into oxygen on the radiator fan, allowing ozone near the ground surface, a cause of photochemical smog, to be decomposed as the vehicle moves. 
Toyota has measured the effect of the coating as purifying about 60 percent of ozone contained in 1,000 liters of air over the course of an hour drive.
Toyota expects this technology to help clean harmful emissions like ozone from the air during drives and is considering the coating for use in commercial vehicles in the future.
The LQ cabin is designed with a futuristic, forward-projecting silhouette that puts Yui at the center of the instrument panel, with lines that flow from the inside of the vehicle out across its exterior.
The minimalist interior is smooth and sleek, with key elements like air conditioner vents hidden behind invisible registers. 
The 3D-printed center console is reinforced using the design technique of topology optimization, which provides optimal strength and supports an advanced vehicle interior with fewer support structures visible to the driver. 
The exterior doors feature glass that seamlessly connects with the interior of the vehicle, creating an integrated, elegant design.
Lexus to distribute a new documentary on Amazon Prime Video that poses the question of whether the most devoted craftsmen and women will survive in an increasingly 'AI powered' world?
In the West it's often considered that it takes 10,000 hours of study for the average person to become an expert in their subject. 
But in Japan you're not considered a master of your craft until you've spent 60,000 hours refining your skills. 
That's the equivalent of working 8 hours a day, 250-days a year for 30 years.
A fascinating documentary unveils the world of the Takumi?the highest level of artisan in Japan. 
The visually-stunning character-driven portrait, made by Chef's Table Director, Clay Jeter for luxury automotive brand Lexus, is due for release on Prime Video, through the Prime Video Direct self-publishing service, on 19th March 2019 globally.
Takumi - A 60,000-hour story on the survival of human craft?follows four Japanese artisans who are dedicating their lives to their crafts, including a double Michelin starred chef, a traditional paper cutting artist, an automotive master craftsman and a carpenter for one of the oldest construction companies in the world.
The documentary, which premiered at the DOC NYC film festival in New York, is unique in that the medium is also the message. 
There will be a feature length version plus a '60,000' hour cut which loops scenes of each Takumi's essential skills of their craft they repeat over and over again to highlight the hours, days and years of practice involved.
Narrated by Former British Museum Director Neil Macgregor and including interviews from world experts in craft and AI, it asks how we will honor and preserve human craft as simultaneously we design machines to act more precisely and faster than humans ever can.
"In the time period we live in, which is so attention-deficit, we all feel like we don't have enough time." says Nora Atkinson Curator of Craft at the Smithsonian American Art Museum.
 "So, the thousands of hours it really takes to become a skilled craftsman is something that a smaller sphere of artists will experience."
By 2050, it's estimated that machines will be capable of surpassing human performance in virtually every field "We're in the midst of exponential progress," says Martin Ford Rise of The Robots: Technology and The Threat of a Jobless Future author. 
He adds that this rate of transformation hasn't been seen before. "In the next 10 years, we're going to see 10,000 years of progress."
Will human craft disappear as artificial intelligence reaches beyond our limits? 
Or will this cornerstone of our culture survive and become more valuable than ever? 
This documentary looks at how to take the long road to excellence in a world that's constantly striving for shortcuts.
"The essence of Takumi is to gain a sublime understanding of the nuances of a particular art." 
Says Nahoko Kojima, the paper cut artist who appears in the documentary.
 "To be focused and spend countless hours on one thing, and to carry on. 
It requires one to empty the mind and focus in a way that is simply not possible when still acquiring a skill."
"The concept of Takumi has physically and philosophically been at the core of the Lexus brand since it started 30 years ago." 
Said Spiros Fotinos, Head of Global Brand at Lexus International. 
"Our Takumi masters have over 60,000 hours (30+ working years) of experience developing their craft.
 To celebrate the brand's anniversary year, we wanted to capture the essence of Takumi?and their 60,000-hour journey?on film."
Viewers can enjoy the 54-minute version or sit and watch the 60,000-hour version on www.takumi-craft.com that allows them to soak up the level of dedication and commitment it takes to achieve a special kind of mastery.
The documentary, created by The&Partnership London, will be available on Amazon Prime Video, Amazon Instant, Google Play and iTunes.
American director Clay Jeter has worked on projects such as the Emmy-nominated Chef's Table, the first original Netflix documentary series. 
Having produced six episodes from 2015 to 2018, he has developed a unique and visually engaging style which is clear throughout his work. 
Another of his works, film 'Jess + Moss', made its debut at the Sundance Film Festival in 2011 and since then he has continued to grow as 'one to watch'.
Dave Bedwood started his copywriting career in 1998. 
In 2004, after working for several London Ad agencies he and three colleagues set up their own called Lean Mean Fighting Machine. 
Within four years, they had won 'Agency of the year' at the Cannes International Advertising Awards. 
Dave has worked and won awards on clients such as Emirates, Virgin, Samsung, The Guardian and Lexus.
Rupert has a long track record of producing content with major feature film and documentary directors.
In 1994, Rupert founded Saville Productions, which has produced projects with some of the most widely acclaimed, prominent award-winning documentary and feature filmmakers including: Martin Campbell (Casino Royale), Fernando Meirelles (City of God), Stephen Daldry (The Reader), James McTeigue (V For Vendetta), Gavin O'Connor (Warrior), Barry Levinson (Rain Man), Bryan Singer (The Usual Suspects), Spike Lee (Inside Man), and Paul Haggis (Crash), Wim Wenders (Paris Texas), Morgan Neville (20 Feet from Stardom), and Werner Herzog (Cave of Forgotten Dreams).
Saville produced a Global World Cup short film with Adidas directed by Fernando Meirelles (City Of God). He also produced a Werner Herzog directed 35-minute film for AT&T "From One Second to the Next" was a huge web and PR success. 
The film is now being shown in over 40,000 schools and colleges.
Other notable projects include Bending the Light, a Michael Apted (The Up series) directed project about the art of photography through the lens of photographers.
The first subject of the documentary, carpenter Shigeo Kiuchi, 67, was trained by his father in the art of 'Miyadaiku'?an ancient form of carpentry founded in Japan. 
"I see myself as like a custodian," explains Kiuchi. 
"I learned from my father who worked here before me, and now I'm passing on the skills to future generations."
Kiuchi works at Kong? Gumi in Osaka, a temple-making company started in 578AD that he joined as a teenage apprentice. 
Kiuchi plans to continue his career indefinitely?"carpenters don't retire" he says. 
However, in contrast, he describes his lifelong contribution to the company as "like a blink of an eye" in comparison to its history.
Kong? Gumi is the world's oldest existing company, founded when Prince Shotoku commissioned Japan's first Buddhist temple. 
It's been in the hands of the same family ever since, and today a 41st generation family member sits on the Kong? Gumi board.
Hisato Nakahigashi runs Miyamasou, a two-Michelin star restaurant in Kyoto. 
He is a fourth generation Kaiseki chef whose great grandfather founded Miyamasou, an inn for pilgrims to stay when visiting the 12th century temple on which the restaurant shares its grounds.
 "For Hisato, his turning point came when he was 20,000 hours into his Takumi journey," says the documentary's director Clay Jeter. 
"His father died unexpectedly at the age of 55, and Hisato had been finessing his craft working in fine dining restaurants overseas. 
However [at this pivotal point in his life] he made the decision to come home and continue the legacy and he's really elevated the restaurant to something extraordinary"
Every morning, to source his ingredients for his honoured guests, Hisato fishes in the local river and forages for local herbs and mountain vegetables?and says he "gives thanks" to nature for supplying his food. 
This dedication is all part of Kaiseki?a traditional Japanese multi-course dinner with a time honoured tradition of going above and beyond for your guests.
The third subject of the documentary, artist Nahoko Kojima is 37 years old, but already has dedicated 60,000 hours to her craft.
 Kojima began 'Kirie' (Japanese papercutting) under private tutelage when she was only five years old and continued throughout her formative years. 
At 18, she moved to Tokyo, and in 2004 she graduated with a degree in Design from Kuwasawa Institute. 
She briefly pursued a career in Graphic Design in Tokyo, but ultimately moved to London to study arts further, and within a few years exhibited her first solo paper-cutting show. 
Then in 2012, her piece 'Cloud Leopard' was unveiled at the Saatchi Gallery. 
It is a sculpture that took five months to complete, cut entirely of one sheet of black paper. 
Kojima's process begins with careful sketches and tests using much smaller pieces of paper. 
Her practice "is labor-intensive in the extreme, and demands tremendous concentration; if she makes a mistake there is no way to repair it. 
She uses scalpel blades that are half the thickness of normal blades and are replaced every three minutes".
In 2013 she won the Jerwood Makers Open award for which she created 'Byaku', the swimming polar bear. 
In 2018 she faced her biggest challenge by creating a 32m life sized sculpture of a blue whale, Shiro. 
This sculpture was shown being cut in the film.
Though she primarily lives in London now, in 2016 at a ceremony in Tokyo, Kojima accepted the coveted Kuwasawa Award for her contribution to the arts.
The documentary also introduces us one of the Takumis at Lexus?Katsuaki Suganuma, who has worked at the company for 32 years. 
Katsuaki, who's a Takumi in charge of the final inspection line at Lexus, has seen big changes in terms of technology, with the introduction of artificial intelligence and robots. 
But he's proof that humans still play a vital role in car manufacturing. 
The documentary takes us behind the scenes at the 4 million square meter plant at Tahara in Aichi, Japan, which is regarded as one of the world's most high-tech factories.
Katsuaki is one of a handful of extraordinarily dedicated individuals with the quarter of a century of practice required to become a Takumi Master Craftsman. 
That's 60,000 hours practice.
This extensive time is spent practicing and refining with minute precision. 
The result is a group of superhuman Craftsmen with razor sharp senses. 
They are seen and see themselves as the guardians of Lexus craft at every stage of production.
This approach to craft is a philosophy that runs throughout the business, which the Takumi are responsible for passing onto the new generations. 
Each Takumi will train their youngers to ensure that their expertise, their tradition, and the Takumi spirit develop in all the new talent. 
This is why we know that nothing is crafted like a Lexus.
Nora Atkinson is a prominent American expert on craft, with a specific focus on the role and importance of handmade in modern culture. 
Her current role is a Curator of Craft at the Smithsonian American Art Museum in Washington DC. 
She was recently named Washingtonian Magazine's 2018 "Best Boundary-Pushing Curator" for her work on a number of critically-acclaimed shows.
Earlier this year Atkinson spoke at TED event called 'The Age of Amazement'?a future focused event exploring AI and new forms of creativity and social change. 
We have filmed Atkinson in Washington. 
Her commentary was about craft in general and its role in the digital age.
 Importantly for us, she linked craft to luxury in terms of real handmade objects and their value in the future.
Martin Ford is a futurist and author focusing on the impact of artificial intelligence and robotics on society and the economy. 
He has written two books on technology. 
His most recent book, Rise of the Robots: Technology and the Threat of a Jobless Future (2015), was a New York Times bestseller and won the Financial Times and McKinsey Business Book of the Year Award in 2015.
Martin's TED Talk on 'How AI could cause job loss' discusses the dichotomy between the negative effect on industries that AI could have, versus the undeniable progress it can cause and the new industries it could inspire. 
He has a loyal following on Twitter, with 42.3k followers and had actively engaged in the discussion on Japan and Technology, tweeting on the 31st of July about 'Why Westerners Fear Robots and the Japanese do not'.
Jon Bruner is a journalist and programmer who runs the Digital Factory program at Formlabs, a company that builds professional-grade 3D printers. 
Before joining Formlabs, he oversaw publications on data, artificial intelligence, hardware, the Internet of Things, manufacturing, and electronics, and was program chair, along with Joi Ito, focused on the intersection between software and the physical world. 
He is a prolific contributor online with articles such as 'Making AI Transparent' and 'Integrating Data with AI' where he talks about the relationship between 'human experts' and algorithms. 
Jon has been interviewed by The Economist's own Podcast on the subject of the ability of machine to mimic man. He asks if 'computers can create beautiful music; can 3D printers adopt traditional techniques to give us reinforced floors?'
 In fascinating contrast to Martina Ford, Jon Bruner is an optimist. 
He's the kind of futurist who is excited about the opportunities that are opened to humans when AI replaces certain tasks and jobs. 
He speaks to the beauty of the man working side-by-side with a machine.
Neil is a highly regarded expert in the history of humankind, having been director of the National Gallery and British Museum for many years, and now as a director of the soon to open Humbolt Forum in Berlin (Germany's answer to The Met). 
Neil has used the lens of human made objects and craft, to tell the history of the world. His bestselling book, exhibition and podcast?A History of the World in 100 Objects, is his most famous work in this area. 
He is a globally renowned expert in this field and a highly respected author and broadcaster.
Lexus launched in 1989 with a flagship sedan and a guest experience that helped define the premium automotive industry. 
In 1998, Lexus introduced the luxury crossover category with the launch of the Lexus RX. 
The luxury hybrid sales leader, Lexus delivered the world's first luxury hybrid and has since sold over 1.45 million hybrid vehicles.
A global luxury automotive brand with an unwavering commitment to bold, uncompromising design, exceptional craftsmanship, and exhilarating performance, Lexus has developed its lineup to meet the needs of the next generation of global luxury guests, and is currently available in over 90 countries worldwide.
Lexus associates/team members across the world are dedicated to crafting amazing experiences that are uniquely Lexus, and that excite and change the world.
The&Partnership London is a future-focused creative agency whose mission is to bring together creativity, technology and data in new, exciting and effective ways.
 Originally founded in 2001 as CHI, the agency rebranded in 2018 as The&Partnership London, underlining its position as the creative and strategic heart of WPP-backed The&Partnership, which is both the UK's largest and Europe's fastest-growing independent agency network. 
The&Partnership London believes the future of the creative industries lies in big, bold and bionic ideas which blend world-class creativity with smart data, progressive technology and artificial intelligence.
LOS ANGELES, USA (November 19, 2019)?The much-anticipated convertible version of the Lexus LC 500 flagship coupe made its global debut today in Los Angeles. 
The LC 500 Convertible will be on display at the 2019 Los Angeles Auto Show, which runs from November 18 to December 1, 2019*1.
The LC lineup is representative of Lexus' evolution towards becoming a luxury lifestyle brand, providing driving pleasure and excitement to enrich customers' lifestyles. 
The new LC 500 Convertible joins the coupe as aspirational halo models for the entire Lexus lineup, providing unique driving experiences that stimulate the senses, and express ultimate beauty.
The exterior of the new LC artfully blends the coupe's unique roofline with the character of a convertible, achieving beauty with the top open or closed. 
The interior design considers how details such as the tonneau cover and seating materials become part of the design impression when viewed from the outside.
The new model follows the coupe's 'Exhilarating Performance' driving signature, providing a sense of unity with nature and an exhilarating driving experience that can only be enjoyed with a convertible.
The interior body structure has optimal placement and shape of braces to yield high dynamic performance faithful to the driver's intentions. 
And thanks to the car's robust and sensual sounding V8, the LC 500 Convertible accelerates in a pleasantly linear manner. 
To further enhance the driving experience, the LC 500 Convertible comes equipped with neck heaters and a transparent wind deflector?supporting the leading comfort and quiet that is Lexus' DNA.
The new LC 500 Convertible is scheduled to go on sale in summer 2020.
With the exterior styling based on that of the LC coupe, the convertible retains excellent aerodynamic performance and optimal weight distribution, incorporating functional beauty into the design. 
The soft-top roof provides a unique silhouette and sporty disposition befitting a convertible. 
The line of the rear trunk lid has been lifted and widened to create a dynamic side view and emphasize the low-and-wide stance.
To ensure that the convertible version of the LC 500 retains a beautiful silhouette when the top is lowered, the automatic folding mechanism stores the top under an integrated tonneau cover. 
Because the designers incorporated a beltline that kicks up at the end of the doors, the vehicle's profile is characterized by a body that wraps around the cabin, providing an overall tight and clean appearance.
The 4-layer soft top has been designed to retain the flowing roofline of the coupe, without the supporting frame visible through the fabric. 
Furthermore, the fabric of the roof has been carefully selected and manufactured to ensure optimal tension and no wrinkling, with improved sound insulation.
The color palettes of the exterior and the soft top, as well as the elegant hues of the interior, were carefully selected and combined to cater to the LC customer's high sense of style, taste and diverse lifestyles.
The interior features details such as gradating quilting and perforation pattern on the upper portion of the seats, as well as the "L" logo embossed on the back of headrests.
When opening and closing the soft top, the movement is carefully controlled especially at the beginning and end to yield a sense of quality and safety for the driver.
 The movement of the top and the tonneau cover have been precisely synched to achieve an elegant and natural movement, while ensuring class-leading opening and closing speeds.
The roof can be opened or closed while the vehicle is traveling at up to 50 km/h, and an animation display within the instrument gauges allows the driver to easily monitor the top's operation progress.
The body structure of the LC 500 Convertible was newly designed to achieve a rigidity level supporting Lexus driving signature equal to the Coupe, while simultaneously offering both beautiful styling and sufficient luggage space.
Thanks to the strategic placement and shape of the rear suspension tower brace, the car's structural rigidity has been significantly enhanced. 
The brace is composed of lightweight die cast aluminum to minimize added weight, and a "PERFORMANCE DAMPER?*2" is adopted for high-quality ride comfort. 
Other braces are located under the body, and materials such as magnesium and aluminum are used to achieve both high rigidity and light weight. The result is dynamic performance faithful to the driver's intentions.
The naturally aspirated 5.0-liter V8, mated to the DirectShift-10 automatic transmission, gives the LC linear-yet-invigorating acceleration. 
Power output is tuned according to the driving scene, with smooth acceleration character during normal commuting, and acceleration at the limit when the driver desires.
In order to make the LC 500 Convertible's V8 more enjoyable when the top is down, a sound generator transmits sensual engine intake sounds through the dash panel, while an exhaust valve enhances the powerful engine sound.
In order to create a space to feel with excitement of open-air driving without hindering conversation in the car, we focused on aerodynamics such as the beltline and rear molding.
 In combination with the transparent polycarbonate wind deflector, wind flow inside the car is suppressed and excellent quietness is achieved.
Sound management is a key part of Lexus' DNA, and the interior space of the LC 500 Convertible stimulates the senses with emotional engine sounds. 
Active Noise Control (ANC), combined with sound insulation and absorption techniques, suppresses unwanted noises and unpleasant sound frequencies.
The audio system faithfully reproduces the original sounds of each instrument, vocals, and recording environment. 
Additionally, the acoustic design automatically changes with the top up or down, providing an acoustic space that can be enjoyed in every situation.
The Lexus Climate Concierge is used to automatically control air conditioning, seat heaters, neck heaters, and steering wheel heater, all while considering whether the top is up or down - making the convertible version of the LC 500's cabin comfortable for its passengers regardless of the temperature outside.
Good morning. My name is Yoshihiro Sawa. I am the President of Lexus International. 
Welcome and thank you all for visiting the Lexus booth today at the Tokyo Motor Show.
Thirty years have passed since Lexus was born in the United States. 
Since then, the brand has continued to grow with outstanding quality, hospitality and a spirit of challenge.
Lexus has always anticipated people's needs and rolled out numerous models such as luxury SUV pioneer RX to provide luxury lifestyle experiences.
However, a somewhat shocking incident did occur that helped shift our history.
 It was in 2011 at Pebble Beach when we first showcased the all-new GS. 
One journalist commented "Lexus is boring brand". 
The comment shocked Akio Toyoda so much that he swore " we will never let anyone say Lexus is boring again".
Following this incident, Akio established the Lexus International company. 
And He himself became Chief Branding Officer as well as Master Driver to help drive bold brand and product reform. 
Within Lexus, we realized that our entrepreneur's challenging spirit was disappearing over the time. 
So, this was a renewed challenge for us.
In Akio's heart, he wants the brand to be something our customers finally choose over other luxury brands. 
For that, Akio strongly believe that we need to nurture gracefulness for the brand in addition to achieve high driving performance and exquisite quality.
The challenger mindset is the foundation of Lexus. 
The first-generation LS was born to redefine the Luxury sedan and this model surprised with high quality, comfort and overwhelming refinement.
Since the 2011 moment, Lexus has been relentlessly challenging to stimulate the five senses. 
We engaged to various activities to become a luxury lifestyle brand.
At this year's Tokyo Motor Show, we present "Lexus Senses Theatre", a space where people can experience the "stimulation of the five senses"
In the audio theatre, the sensual engine sound of Lexus LFA stimulates hearing. 
In the visual theatre, the beauty of Lexus LC , which changes its appearance according to the time of day and the viewing angle, is highlighted. 
Please come and enjoy this real experience.
In addition to providing experiences to customers, a luxury brand need to meet social responsibility for better future.
The vision of automobiles and mobility for a better society is being redefined. We try to offer a luxury brand that provides unique values.
The foundation of our brand activities is rooted from the concept of being "human-centered." 
Using advanced safety technology as an example, we constantly strive to produce higher safety standards, including easy-to-understand interfaces between humans and cars, and develop driving behavior that brings safety, security and confidence.
As a part of our achievements, we plan to launch a model equipped with Lexus Teammate, an advanced driving assist technology, in 2020.
The Lexus brand will continue to value the stimulation of the five senses and bond with the life of each one of us.
In order for us to contribute to enhancing our customer's lives, vehicles will need to keep playing a vital role. 
In Japan, we sometimes call our car "Aisha", which literary means "beloved car".
For Lexus, Aisha refers to our central philosophy for crafting vehicles that people are not just merely interested in and passionate about, but something that people can actually bond with.
We aim to provide vehicles that will be enjoyed and cherished, which will exceed their expectations, thereby imparting a rich lifestyle by stimulating the five senses. Lexus is unwavering in this mission.
Another message is about future electrification technologies. 
At Lexus, we are building upon our fundamental mission, which is to deliver higher levels of driver engagement and help incite a passion for driving, and elaborate upon it further. 
Finally, we aim to fundamentally change the concept of future luxury vehicles.
Lexus is already at the forefront globally as a leader in hybrid technologies. 
We are confident that Lexus will continue to be cutting-edge, backed by core technologies, including batteries, motors and power controls, that are essential components for electrified vehicles. 
Based on this idea, we came up with the name Lexus Electrified to define our brand's electrification vision.
The LF-30 Electrified is a concept car that embodies our Lexus Electrified vision. 
The concept car is a BEV with an automated driving function while also possessing the intuitive values of a car. 
This is one realization of our Yet philosophy.
We created the concept car design by realizing an advanced image expected of BEVs and incorporating the advanced technologies of connectivity and automated driving.
The Lexus LF-30 Electrified uses a new technology, we call it Lexus Advanced Posture Control. 
This integrates the pinnacle of electrification technologies and movement control technologies that Lexus has been developing. 
With precise control of the motors, the technologies enable us to realize drive-control that conventional gasoline vehicles cannot attain.
As the ultimate form, the concept car is equipped with four in-wheel-motors.
The LF-30 Electrified employs various core technologies beyond Lexus Advanced Posture Control.
To advance this goal, Lexus is developing HV, PHV, FCV other than EV to meet the needs of various regions and markets depending on their condition such as governmental policies and energy situation. 
We will launch such models immediately to markets like Europe and China where the needs are particularly high.
Concretely speaking, we will introduce the first Lexus EV model next month and start selling it in 2020. 
Then, PHV and pure EV will follow in the early half of the 2020s.
Furthermore, we will continue make advances in our core HV technologies and also continue to develop FC technology as our overall electrification strategy.
Finally, around 2025 we expect to offer an electrified variant of each model in our line-up.
As we mark this 30-year milestone, we plan to further accelerate the electrification of vehicles while providing customers with a richer lifestyle, and elevated driver engagement.
 Please keep watching to see what Lexus will have to offer going forward.
TOKYO, JAPAN (October 23, 2019)?In its continued efforts to deliver innovative and amazing experiences, Lexus unveiled its "Lexus Electrified" vision for an upcoming generation of electrified vehicles. 
Headlining this moment was the debut of the Lexus LF-30 Electrified Concept, which made its world premiere at the 46th Tokyo Motor Show 2019.
Since the brand's creation in 1989, Lexus has endeavored to deliver to its customers innovative and amazing product and brand experiences that stimulate the five senses. 
Since the launch of the RX 400h in 2005, Lexus has led the world as a pioneer in electrification technologies such as the two-stage reduction gear and the multi-stage hybrid system which leverage technology to offer excellent performance and the direct driving sensation characteristic of Lexus Hybrid vehicles.
The "Lexus Electrified" vision unveiled today targets a fundamental leap in vehicle performance, handling, control and driver enjoyment?even as mobility within our society continues to change with autonomous driving and vehicle electrification.
Evoking the original fun of driving, Lexus is developing new advanced posture control and other electrification technologies to further evolve driving pleasure, and to fundamentally transform the essence of luxury vehicles of the future. 
Towards this end, Lexus is drawing on the lessons learned developing the core technologies found in Lexus' popular range of gasoline-electric hybrids, including battery management, power control modules, and electric motors. 
In particular, the technology of Lexus Electrified enables integrated control of powertrain, steering, suspension, and brakes, realizing the ultimate potential of the motor control technology cultivated in HV. 
With this technology, we can control the driving force to provide ideal vehicle posture according to each driving situation. 
Lexus endeavors to continue providing enjoyable and safer driving vehicles.
To advance this goal, Lexus plans to unveil its first BEV in November 2019?broadening our response to the needs of various regions around the world, including the development of HEVs, PHEVs, BEVs, and FCEVs. 
Moving forward after that, Lexus plans to expand its electrified vehicle lineup?we will launch our first Lexus PHEV and a new dedicated BEV platform early in the coming decade. 
By 2025, Lexus will have available electrified versions of all Lexus vehicle models, and we are aiming for the sales of electrified vehicle models to outpace those of conventional internal combustion engine vehicle models.
The LF-30 Electrified concept vehicle embodies the "Lexus Electrified" vision. 
For its exterior styling the advanced image expected of a BEV has been channeled into artistic qualities that result in a futuristic form, and an interior that assertively weaves in autonomous driving and other new technologies aims to manifest Lexus' distinctive worldview. 
Performance is rooted in Lexus Electrified components, adding Lexus' latest technology to our leadership in development of HEV systems. 
Precise electric motor control enables instantaneous adjustments to posture not possible with conventional vehicles. 
Furthermore, the LF-30 Electrified employs numerous advanced technologies with a look ahead to the year 2030- such as a new-concept cockpit based on a human-centered design philosophy and a steer-by-wire system.
In taking up the challenge of expressing a new design that could only be achieved with a BEV powered by in-wheel electric motors, Lexus visually articulated the LF-30 Electrified's unique energy flow. 
The vehicle form is meant to visually express the energy created by the wheels set at the corners of the vehicle body streaming toward the vehicle cabin and past the driver to directly flow onto the road surface.
Taking advantage of a hoodless vehicle shape made possible by being a BEV, Lexus' signature "spindle" form has been further evolved to span the entire vehicle architecture. 
The window glass, which continually stretches from the front to rear, the muscular fenders, and the wing-shaped headlights form the contours of the Lexus iconic spindle. 
The shape of the body is fashioned with an elegantly flowing front which transitions into a linear and sharp rear.
 In addition to the wing-shaped headlights, the sharpness of the rear lights and side air intakes combine to achieve both excellent aerodynamics and cooling performance, resulting in styling fused with function.
The opacity of the side windows can be freely adjusted, providing occupants with expansive views of the surrounding scenery and a high level of privacy at night and in other situations. 
The color of the front face of the vehicle and luminescence patterns help identify from the outside whether the vehicle is being operated in its normal mode or in its autonomous driving mode, reflecting Lexus' pursuit of both a high level of styling and functionality. 
The exterior color 'voltaic sky' employs a leading-edge metal-infused coating to achieve a unique quality tinted by a touch of blue-green.
To manifest in a higher dimension Lexus' fundamental human-centered philosophy, the cockpit was designed based on the new Lexus concept of "Tazuna".
 Inspired by how a single rein can be used to achieve mutual understanding between horse and rider, the steering controller-mounted switches and head-up display have been coordinated to a high degree, creating a space that enables the driver to focus on driving while controlling various functions, such as the navigation and audio system and driving-mode selection, without having to shift one's vision or operate manual switches. 
As an indication of the future image of a Tazuna cockpit, the LF-30 Electrified employs next-generation interfaces, such as gesture control and enhanced presentation of vehicle information through AR (augmented reality). 
The resulting interior is one that provides comfort and convenience for both driver and passengers.
With the layout of the front passenger seat echoing that of a first-class seat on an airliner, the interior is one in which a sense of openness and a sense of envelopment coexist. 
All switches and other controls being comfortably within reach and a gesture-control large-screen display for the passenger seat add to the achievement of interior comfort and convenience.
The rear seats use artificial muscle technology to mold to their occupant, and can support various modes such as reclining, relaxation, and alert functions. 
A Mark Levinson? audio system creates a next-generation listening environment, in which minute speaker control establishes ideal acoustic spaces for music listening pleasure for the driver and each passenger, and speakers built into the headrests not only provide an optimal audio environment but also have a noise-cancelling feature that contributes to enhanced quietness.
A glass roof above the rear seats features voice control and a gesture controlled "SkyGate" display window that uses AR to display various types of information, such as a realistic star-filled sky, user-favorite videos, and even navigation.
In addition to its unique design, the interior also indicates the direction of next-generation luxury by using sustainable materials to reduce environmental burden. 
Yakisugi (charred cedar), a traditional Japanese material, is used in the floor and steering controller while recycled metal was processed into fibers for use in creating the pleated door trim.
 This approach expresses Lexus' distinctiveness and innovative spirit.
To achieve a fundamental leap in vehicle performance, handling, control and driver enjoyment, the LF-30 employs numerous state-of-the-art technologies even beyond advanced posture control. 
In-wheel electric motors for each of the vehicle's four wheels and low positioning of the battery enable better handling of inertia and high-level driving performance. 
Autonomous driving technologies and drone support vehicle technologies look ahead to the year 2030 and the widely expanded value that vehicles can offer.
Lexus Advanced Posture Control technology regulates the drive-power output from high-torque electric motors to adjust vehicle posture in tune with human sensibilities. 
Completely independent control of front and rear drive wheels allows appropriate provision of front-wheel drive, rear-wheel drive, and all-wheel drive, depending on the driving situation.
 Compact and lightweight drive-power units expand freedom in vehicle packaging and are used to enable the driver to enjoy ideal driving, regardless of the road surface or driving conditions.
Positioning Lexus Advanced Posture Control technology as a core element of the 'Lexus Electrified' vision, Lexus intends to widely apply this technology throughout its lineup of electrified vehicles.
The steer-by-wire system eliminates a mechanical connection to allow more flexible turning control depending on driving conditions, and a more precise steering feel aligned with the driver's intention. 
It also contributes to a greater sense of openness by allowing the steering controller can be shifted forward and out of the way during autonomous driving.
As a next-generation BEV, LF-30 uses wireless charging technology to simplify daily charging, and AI-based energy management to enable optimal distribution of electric power to both the vehicle and the home, and charging control coordinated with the user's daily schedule.
Onboard AI distinguishes the voices of vehicle occupants, and uses personalized information stored on the driver's control key to serve as a partner.
 It facilitates the adjustment of elements of the interior environment, such as air temperature and audio, and the setting of navigation routes and destinations, while also making proposals for activities after arrival. 
It also understands driver's preferences and helps them control the suspension and powertrain settings in real-time according to the driving scene.
The LF-30 Electrified also carries the 'Lexus Airporter' drone-technology support vehicle. 
Using autonomous control, the Lexus Airporter is capable of such tasks as independently transporting baggage from a household doorstep to the vehicle's luggage area.
Based on the latest autonomous driving technology concept of 'Lexus Teammate', the LF-30 Electrified features advanced driving support functions in the form of a Chauffeur mode and a Guardian mode. 
Occupants can enjoy both comfort and peace of mind during autonomous driving with advanced posture control technology being employed. 
Furthermore, a self-parking function and a front-door pickup function in which the LF-30 Electrified autonomously moves from driveway to doorstep provide an especially high level of convenience.
In addition to the LF-30 Electrified exhibition, the Lexus booth at Tokyo Motor Show will contain "Lexus Senses theatre", a space where people can experience the "stimulation of the five senses".
 It consists of two experience spaces, audio and visual. 
In Theater 1, the sensual engine sound of Lexus LFA stimulates hearing with 360 degree 3D sound.
Theater 2 offers a visually stimulating experience with the Lexus LC model by projection mapping - which changes its appearance according to the time of day and the viewing angle. 
In this booth layout you can appreciate the Lexus philosophy, while enjoying sensory stimulation through "real experience".
GUANGZHOU, China (November 22, 2019)?LEXUS will introduce its first battery electric vehicle (BEV), the UX 300e, at the Guangzhou International Automobile Exhibition, which will be held in Guangzhou, China, from November 22 to December 1, 2019.
Since introducing the RX 400h in 2005, LEXUS has been a pioneer in vehicle electrification technology, playing a leading role in offering products that possess both performance and environmental friendliness.
 At the 2019 Tokyo Motor Show, Lexus unveiled its global electrification strategy, called "Lexus Electrified", which targets a fundamental leap in vehicle performance, handling, control and driver enjoyment.
In particular, the technology of Lexus Electrified enables integrated control of powertrain, steering, suspension, and brakes, realizing the ultimate potential of the motor control technology cultivated in HV. 
With this technology, we can control the driving force to provide ideal vehicle posture according to each driving situation. 
Lexus endeavors to continue providing enjoyable and safer driving vehicles.
As the first production model under the Lexus Electrified banner, the all-electric UX 300e was developed for excellent on-road performance. 
Lexus engineers kept the distinctive design and the utility characteristics of the UX crossover intact, and focused on the opportunities to build on the performance advantages unique to EVs. 
The UX 300e's high-output motor provides a natural-yet-brisk acceleration character, and the high-capacity batteries located directly underneath the floor of the cabin deliver a low center of gravity and 400 km-driving range.
 Combined with the newest connectivity technology, the UX 300e maximizes the advantages of EVs while realizing driving performance and convenience in a single package. ('yet' philosophy)
The UX 300e is scheduled to go on sale in the Chinese and European markets in 2020, and in Japan early in 2021.
Lexus has always focused on providing exhilarating performance, and the case is no different with development of a BEV. 
Starting from the refined Lexus driving signature of the UX, Lexus engineers were able to leverage the new electric drivetrain to even further enhance the vehicle's on-road performance. 
At the same time, UX 300e has one of the quietest cabins in its class, as befits the sound management heritage of the Lexus DNA.
UX 300e's Drive Mode Select function lets customers manage smooth acceleration and deceleration according to their situation. 
Drivers can feel the powerful acceleration and instant torque of the EV powertrain as they push the pedal, and use the paddle shift in a similar manner as engine braking, through four levels of deceleration regeneration?all while enjoying a natural on-road feel.
The UX 300e provides excellent dynamic performance thanks to the low center of gravity resulting from motor and battery placement underneath the vehicle body, combined with optimized of front/rear weight distribution and moment of inertia.
The high-performance level of the GA-C platform is enhanced with additional braces and optimization of the shock absorbers' damping force to match the dynamic changes of electrification.
While EVs are naturally quiet, UX 300e adds insulation beyond just the battery and suppresses outside noises such as wind or pebbles which would be otherwise noticeable in the absence of an engine and transmission. 
Lexus focus on sound management lets drivers enjoy comfortable tranquility in the cabin.
Engineers also focused on sound while driving to provide a natural feeling. 
Active Sound Control (ASC) transmits natural ambient sounds to allow for understanding of driving conditions, and provides a natural feeling for the cabin's occupants.
In developing the UX 300e, Lexus utilized the knowledge acquired developing the brand's industry-leading hybrid systems, and applied the same level of quality and comfortable operation to its first production EV as it always has with other vehicles. 
The Lexus engineering team delivered outstanding battery reliability, and also adopt the latest connectivity technology to maximize everyday usability and the functionality with smartphones.
The efficiency of the motor, inverter, gears and high-capacity battery were all maximized, utilizing the knowledge acquired developing hybrid vehicles. 
By improving the performance of the entire system, the UX 300e's driving range is an anxiety-free 400 km.
The batteries are equipped with a temperature management system that operates at low and high ambient temperatures. 
Reliability is also increased with the use of multiple monitoring systems that regulate charging and prevent conditions like overcharging.
UX 300e offers the latest in connected car technology. 
By linking to a smartphone using a dedicated app, drivers can check the battery state of charge and driving range. 
Charging controls are also included such as timer function to inform the owner when the vehicle will be fully charged or to schedule the charging according to when the vehicle is expected to be driven next.
 The app also allows the owner to remotely control various convenience functions such as the A/C, and window defrosters.
Distinctive styling and high functionality from the Lexus UX compact crossover were passed on to the UX 300e, providing an excellent overall package
In addition to the bold and sophisticated exterior reminiscent of tough and agile driving, Lexus developed special aerodynamic wheels and underbody cover for the UX 300e.
Location of the shift-by-wire system on the center console contributes to the simplicity and functionality of the interior design.
Lexus prioritizes the development of the most advanced safety technologies and quickly delivering them to drivers. 
UX 300e adopts Lexus Safety System+, as Lexus continues to pursue the prevention of accidents and fatalities, as well as decreasing driver stress and developing driver assist systems to provide a more natural and safe driving experience.
Which kinds of electric cars can you buy nowadays?
 What makes a plug-in hybrid different from a mild hybrid? 
Read on to find the answers in our comparison of electric cars.
Sooner or later, the majority of drivers will be making the switch from petrol cars to an electric vehicle. 
The advantages are obvious, above all for the environment, because engines powered by electricity don’t give off emissions, so electric cars are locally emission-free. 
At the moment, electric vehicles (EVs) are more expensive than conventional ones. 
However, with EVs comes a variety of savings, like lower operating and maintenance costs, that their fuel-powered counterparts don’t have. 
On top of this, manufacturers offer refunds for EVs and many countries have incentives and tax credits for them.
Electric cars are obviously a practical choice, but that doesn't mean they aren't fun. 
When you're at a traffic light, you’ll have enough torque to smoke the guy next to you when the light turns green, but you’ll be able to do it in a sneaky way because the engine is so quiet.
Technological advances in electric mobility enable carmakers to offer an ever-expanding range of vehicles, which makes it easy to lose track of all the developments. 
Some buyers are perfectly happy with a plug-in hybrid, while others want a fully electric car. 
Our comparison of electric cars explains the different kinds of designs. 
We use the term EV to include electric vehicles as well as hybrids.
As an e-mobility pioneer, the BMW Group has reached another electromobility milestone and already delivered half a million electrified cars to customers worldwide until the end of 2019. 
On top of that BMW aims to have one million electrified vehicles on the roads within two years and contribute towards effective climate protection.
How does an electric vehicle work? 
As opposed to a combustion engine, an EV uses electricity from a battery rather than the combustion of fuel to power the engine. 
The capacity of the battery determines the EV's range (how far it can go on a single charge of the battery).
An all-electric vehicle (BEV – battery electric vehicle) runs strictly on electricity. 
It does not have a combustion engine, which is why it does not produce emissions locally. 
For this reason we have given it the maximum number of points for environmental friendliness in our comparison of electric vehicles.
The problem is that many motorists are worried about range – a worry that is generally unfounded. 
Today, most BEVs have a range of over 185 miles and most motorists in the USA drive less than 60 miles a day.
By using a range extender, motorists can breathe easy in this regard. 
A range extender is a petrol-powered generator that feeds electricity exclusively to the battery when its charge is nearly drained. 
In a BEV, this generator does not directly power the car, because if it did, it would be a hybrid.
Another advantage of BEVs (Battery Electric Vehicles) is that they have the most country-specific incentives and tax credits. 
Fully electric vehicles are ideal for people who can charge their battery at home or at work. 
Nowadays, more and more public charging stations are being opened, especially in metro areas and along motorways. 
This means that in the future, it will be more and more easy to make long-distance trips.
What is a hybrid car? In contrast to an electric vehicle, a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) has both a combustion and an electric engine. 
Depending on the car, both motors can either be independent of one another or can work in tandem.
The degree to which hybrids function as an electric vehicle depends on their electric performance, their electric range and the range of their recharging system. 
There are two types of HEVs: mild hybrids and plug-in hybrids.
How does a mild hybrid work? 
The electric motor of a mild hybrid assists the combustion engine. 
It kicks in when a great deal of fuel is being consumed, particularly during startup. 
This enables mild hybrids to reduce their fuel consumption and emissions. 
Batteries are automatically recharged with regenerative braking.
Mild hybrid vehicles – also known as 48-volt hybrids or MHEVs (mild hybrid electric vehicles) – have an electric motor that assists the combustion engine. 
The electric motor kicks in when a lot of fuel is being burned, particularly during startup. 
It can also serve to boost the engine's power during acceleration.
The battery is exclusively charged via regenerative braking, which captures the energy created by the friction of braking, converts it to electricity and stores it in the battery. 
Mild hybrids do not use charging stations.
The main advantage of a mild hybrid is its fuel consumption, that is 0.1 gallons (per 62 miles) lower than that of a petrol car. Since less fuel is consumed, the vehicle can go farther on a full tank of petrol or diesel. 
Because the main propulsion system is powered by a combustion engine, mild hybrids benefit from the ubiquity of petrol stations. 
So mild hybrids are ideal for motorists who are looking for maximum range combined with low fuel consumption and who don’t want to worry about charging the battery.
Because they consume less fuel, mild hybrids have lower emissions, but the electric motor is not capable of powering the car on its own. 
This is why mild hybrids get none of the incentives that are offered for EVs and why they receive only two points for sustainability in our comparison of electric vehicles.
What is a plug-in hybrid? 
A plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV) has both a combustion engine and an electric motor. 
Each one is capable of powering the vehicle on its own. 
Plug-in hybrids use regenerative braking as their energy source, but they can also be plugged in to recharge the battery.
While a mild hybrid car captures electric energy solely while it’s being driven, and thus can only supply a limited amount of power, a plug-in hybrid – PHEV (plug-in hybrid vehicle) – is also capable of recharging its battery when it’s parked at a charging station. 
This significantly expands the electric range of a plug-in hybrid like the 2018 BMW 530e iPerformance, which can drive 28 miles only on electricity with a fully charged battery. 
Over the next few years, technological advances will significantly improve the range of electric motors – as well as that of all battery-powered cars.
Many PHEV owners can already manage most of their trips on electricity because daily commutes are generally less than 30 miles.
 It depends on how much you pay for electricity, but you will likely be saving a great deal. 
If the electric charge is depleted, then the combustion engine takes over, so you don’t have to worry about finding a charging station.
PHEVs are ideal for motorists who want to use their cars in a variety of ways. 
You can use the electric motor for daily commutes, but also take advantage of the great range and flexibility of a petrol engine when you go on longer trips. 
 In addition, owners can benefit directly from financial incentives for electric vehicles in certain countries and indirectly from lower taxes from reduced CO2 emissions.
How does a fuel cell vehicle work? 
Cars powered by hydrogen are also considered EVs because oxygen and hydrogen are converted to electric energy, which then powers the electric motor with a battery. 
They can also recapture the energy that is lost during braking and store it in a battery.
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) create their own electricity on board. 
Hydrogen in the fuel cell reacts with oxygen in the air, thereby generating electricity, which is used to power the electric motor, similar to a BEV. 
As a result, they only emit water vapor and warm air. 
However, it does have an ecological disadvantage because the production of hydrogen requires a large amount of electricity. 
On top of this, the hydrogen must be transported from the production facility to petrol stations.
FCEVs have a range similar to that of future battery-powered EVs. 
One significant advantage of FCEVs is the short time it takes to fill the tank – a matter of minutes - just like it is with a petrol/diesel car. 
One problem, however, is that filling stations are few and far between and little progress is being made in adding new ones. 
Should this change in the future then there would be little difference between operating a FCEV and a petrol car.
It is also still very expensive to manufacture fuel cell systems. 
One of the main reasons for this is that platinum is needed for the catalytic converter.
Every driver is different and has their own personal needs. 
Luckily, there are a lot of different types of engines out there to serve these needs. 
And each kind of vehicle offers drivers certain advantages. 
Even conventional petrol or diesel cars have their place in the mobility mixture of the future for specific user groups and for special areas of application.
The future will also likely see a combination of several technologies. 
BMW has prepared for this with its innovative vehicle platform, which can accommodate the three types of propulsion systems, the powertrain of a combustion engine as well as that of a plug-in hybrid or a fully electric vehicle. 
The production model of a fully electric vehicle, the BMW Vision iNEXT (launch in 2021) will be the first vehicle with this universal propulsion platform.
A car is a precious gift for those truly special moments in life. 
Such a token of affection deserves to be presented in an emotional and tasteful way. 
Let us show you our step-by-step guide on how to wrap your vehicle to be an unforgettable gift – hassle-free, but with tears of joy guaranteed.
You can give a young person the amazing gift of freedom – in the form of their very own first car. 
You can fulfill your or your loved one’s life’s dream – in the shape of their long sought-after dream car. 
Anyone who has ever received a car as a present knows just how happy a gift like that can make you – more for its emotional value than for its material cost.
But how do you gift wrap a car? 
The classic way is to tie a bow on the hood or wrap it around the whole car. 
That looks very loving, but also a little amateurish. 
So maybe you should gift wrap the car in a way that does justice to the present itself? 
One that doesn’t give everything away immediately, but heightens the sense of anticipation, because the contents of the package aren’t obvious at first glance. 
One that conjures up an amazed expression on the face of the recipient – followed by unbridled joy.
Stylist Dagmar Murkudis has come up with a simple and ingenious way to gift wrap a car for BMW.com – cover the car, stick on fluorescent design elements and shine a black light lamp on it.
“What’s nice about this method of car gift wrapping is that it’s really fun because you can run riot creatively,” Dagmar says. “
It’s also really easy to do and doesn’t take that long.
 After two or three hours you get a stunning visual result.”
Use our step-by-step help guide to find out how to wrap a car: What you need and how to do it.
Packaging as a promise: Fluorescent adhesive strips let you highlight design features of the car.
Dagmar Murkudis has put a lot of thought into how to wrap a car. 
She quickly ruled out wrapping paper – just imagine the effort! 
Not to mention the garbage that all that wrapping paper would create. 
“At some point I came up with the idea of creating a lighting effect – with a black car cover and some self-adhesive neon tape.”
Dagmar recommends making a sketch of the pattern you want to stick on before you start. 
That way, you don’t have to make corrections later on.
 Pro tip: Large decorative elements such as patterns (stars, hearts, etc.) or lettering (e.g. “Happy Birthday”) work best on the hood or the side doors.
She studied under German artist Joseph Beuys and world-famous make-up artist Ren? Koch and worked for fashion magazines such as Cosmopolitan and Marie Claire. 
Dagmar Murkudis is a renowned German stylist who loves wrapping presents. “
With gift packing, there are no limits on your creativity,” she says. 
“And the best thing about it is seeing the joy of the person unwrapping the present.
 In which case it’s perfectly fine if they tear up the packaging.”
Fittingly for Christmastime, Dagmar is planning to put stars on the doors. 
As another decorative element, she has opted for a series of large triangles. 
She used these to trace the contours of the BMW X2. Like the decorative stripes on the car, the triangles along the striking lines of the bodywork look very dynamic. 
At the same time, they hint at the actual gift: You can make out the silhouette of the gift-wrapped car.
“When you’re sticking shapes on the car, you can let your imagination run wild,” Dagmar says. 
But she advises against covering a large area with neon: “Using a black light lamp gets its effect from the contrast between the dark car cover and the colored tape. 
A big neon surface wouldn’t give you that.”
An indoor car cover (textile, matte black) that fits the specific vehicle model (about USD 140).
Fluorescent neon sticky tape in two or three colors (approx. USD 9 per roll).
A black light lamp or 2 (at least 30 W) to illuminate a darkened room (e.g. a garage) from two directions (approx. USD 40 each).
A cutting mat (about USD 11) or other cut-resistant base and a boxcutter/utility knife. 
Scissors are less suitable because the tape sticks to them.
A ruler to help with long straight cuts (optional).
Dagmar’s pro tip on color selection for the neon tape: “I limit myself to two colors so that it doesn’t get too wild.
 If possible, you need to try out the colors under a black light lamp. 
For example, this test demonstrates that green and yellow are too similar and do not produce any contrast.” 
Dagmar ultimately went for yellow and pink for her DIY car wrap.
“What’s nice about this method of car gift wrapping is that it’s really fun because you can run riot creatively,” Dagmar says. 
“It’s also really easy to do and doesn’t take that long. 
After two or three hours you get a stunning visual result.”
Pull the car cover over the bodywork – preferably right down to the wheels so that the car is completely covered. 
(Pro tip: It’s easier to pull the cover on with a friend) Pull the car cover tight and avoid creases so that all the tape sticks properly.
Cut tape triangles with the boxcutter, stick them onto the car cover and press down firmly. 
Repeat until you have finished your decoration.
Cut large decorative patterns like stars with the utility knife and stick them on. 
Dagmar’s pro tip: “In the chosen spots, the material should be in direct contact with the bodywork so that you can press the pattern down well.”
And just like that, your gift-wrapped car is ready to provide a spectacular surprise. 
Now make the room dark and line up the black light lamp or lamps so that the neon tape shines brightly. 
Your recipient will be left speechless on seeing the colored decorations sparkle like stars under the black light lamp. 
“That moment when I switched on the lamp for the first time – it was truly amazing,” says Dagmar.
Then just remove the decorated car cover, and the car will take the spotlight. 
What an unforgettable gift!
Dagmar Murkudis didn’t just gift wrap a BMW X2. 
She also packaged up a number of gift ideas from BMW Lifestyle. 
See if you can guess what’s in these packages. 
All the products can be found in the BMW Lifestyle store.
When it comes to alternative power sources for engines, to the mind of the general public, the fuel cell battery currently lags behind. 
Yet experts believe that hydrogen fuel cell cars will catch up. 
But how does the technology work? 
What are the pros and cons? 
Read on for the answers to all the key questions.
Fewer pollutants, less noise – these are among the many great hopes for electrically powered vehicles. 
When it comes to electromobility, most people think of vehicles with a large battery that you charge from a wall outlet. 
Yet there is another propulsion technology that traffic experts are expecting a lot from – including an alternative to long charging times.
The technology in question is the hydrogen engine, also known as the fuel cell electric vehicle, or FCEV. 
Before we discuss the pros and cons of hydrogen fuel cell cars, as well as the costs and risks involved, we’ll first briefly outline how this technology works.
How does a hydrogen engine work?
Hydrogen fuel cell cars are powered by an electric motor and are therefore classified as e-cars. 
The common abbreviation is FCEV, short for “Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle,” in contrast to a BEV or “Battery Electric Vehicle.”
There is one crucial difference between hydrogen fuel cell cars and other electric vehicles – hydrogen cars produce the electricity themselves. 
So, unlike in fully electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles, the vehicle doesn’t get its power from a built-in battery that can be charged from an external power source (? Read more: Electric cars and plug-in hybrids explained). 
Instead, hydrogen cars effectively have their own efficient power plant on board: the fuel cell.
In fuel cell technology, a process known as reverse electrolysis takes place, in which hydrogen reacts with oxygen in the fuel cell. 
The hydrogen comes from one or more tanks built into the FCEV, while the oxygen comes from the ambient air. 
The only results of this reaction are electrical energy, heat and water, which is emitted through the exhaust as water vapor. 
So hydrogen-powered cars are locally emission-free – more about that in a minute.
The electricity generated in the fuel cell of a hydrogen engine can take two routes, depending on the demands of the specific driving situation.
 It either flows to the electric motor and powers the FCEV directly or it charges a battery, which stores the energy until it’s needed for the engine. 
This battery, known as a traction battery, is significantly smaller and therefore lighter than the battery of a fully electric car, as it’s being constantly recharged by the fuel cell. 
Like other e-cars, hydrogen vehicles can also recover or “recuperate” braking energy. 
The electric motor converts the car’s kinetic energy back into electrical energy and feeds it into the back-up battery.
The pros and cons of a particular propulsion technology can be seen from two main perspectives: that of the user, and that of the environment. 
If any technology is to succeed as an alternative to the combustion engine, it must be user-friendly and significantly reduce the emission of pollutants. 
We’ll start by examining the key benefits and disadvantages for drivers/owners of hydrogen fuel cell cars – with the help of Axel R?cker, Program Manager Hydrogen Fuel Cell at the BMW Group.
The propulsion in hydrogen fuel cell cars is purely electrical. 
When you drive one, it feels similar to driving a regular electric car. 
What does that mean? 
Virtually no engine noise and a lively start, because electric motors provide full torque even at low speeds.
Another advantage is the quick charging time. 
Depending on the charging station and battery capacity, fully electric vehicles currently require between 30 minutes and several hours for a full charge. 
The hydrogen tanks of fuel cell cars, on the other hand, are full and ready to go again in less than five minutes. 
For users, this brings vehicle availability and flexibility into line with those of a conventional car.
For the time being, hydrogen cars still have a longer range than purely electric cars. 
A full hydrogen tank will last around 300 miles (approx. 480 kilometers). 
Battery-powered cars can match this with very large batteries – which in turn will lead to an increase in both vehicle weight and charging times.
The range of fuel cell vehicles is not dependent on the outside temperature.
In other words, it does not deteriorate in cold weather.
Currently, the biggest shortcoming of hydrogen fuel cell cars is the sparsity of options for refueling. 
A hydrogen engine is refueled at special fuel pumps, which in the future will probably find their way into ordinary service stations. 
As things stand, however, there are still very few refueling stations for hydrogen-powered cars. 
At the end of 2019 there are only around 40 in the U.S., as compared to approx. 80 in Germany.
“We have a chicken and egg problem with hydrogen fuel cell technology,” explains BMW expert R?cker. 
“As long as the network of refueling stations for hydrogen-powered cars is so thin, the low demand from customers will not allow for profitable mass production of fuel cell vehicles. 
And as long as there are hardly any hydrogen cars on the roads, the operators will only hesitantly expand their refueling station network.”
BMW’s homeland of Germany leads the way in terms of infrastructure for hydrogen fuel cell cars. 
In order to promote the expansion of refueling infrastructure there, vehicle manufacturers like BMW have joined forces with hydrogen producers and filling station operators in the Clean Energy Partnership initiative, which plans to expand the hydrogen fueling station network to 130 stations by 2022. 
That would allow the operation of about 60,000 hydrogen cars on Germany’s roads. 
The next target, with a corresponding increase in fuel cell vehicles, will be 400 stations by 2025. 
More fueling stations are also needed in neighboring countries to actually make it possible to travel outside Germany via FCEV, according to R?cker.
In addition to the thin fueling station network, there is another reason for the as of yet low demand for hydrogen fuel cell cars: they are relatively expensive to buy. 
The few models of fuel cell vehicles already available on the market cost around USD 80,000 for a mid- or upper-mid-range vehicle. 
That’s almost twice as much as comparable fully electric or hybrid vehicles.
There are a range of reasons why hydrogen fuel cell cars are still expensive. 
In addition to small volumes, which means that production is still to be industrialized, there’s also the question of the need for the precious metal, platinum, which acts as a catalyst during power generation. 
The amount of platinum needed for vehicle fuel cells has already been greatly reduced. “
The general goal is to bring down the price of hydrogen-powered cars to a similar level to that of other electric cars,” explains R?cker.
Another reason for the high purchase price is that hydrogen fuel cell cars tend to be quite large because the hydrogen tank(s) take up a lot of space.
 The drive unit for a purely battery-driven electric vehicle, on the other hand, also fits into small cars. 
That’s why classic electric cars can currently be found in all vehicle classes.
In addition to the cost of purchase, operating costs also play an important role in the cost-effectiveness and acceptance of a propulsion technology.
 In hydrogen fuel cell cars, these costs are not least dependent on the price of the fuel. 
At present, 1 lb (0.45 kg) of hydrogen costs around USD 14 in the U.S., as compared with USD 4.80 in Germany (this is the price the H2 Mobility partners have agreed on). 
An FCEV can drive about 28 miles (45 km) on 1 lb (0.45 kg) of hydrogen.
The cost per mile of running hydrogen cars is therefore currently almost twice as high as that of battery-powered vehicles charged at home. 
R?cker expects these operating costs to converge: “If the demand for hydrogen increases, the price could drop to around USD 2.50/lb (USD 5.60/kg) by 2030.”
A car that uses only renewable energy and produces no harmful emissions would be ideal from an environmental point of view. 
Let’s take a look at how close fuel cell cars are to this goal in comparison to other types of propulsion:
Alternative propulsion systems are designed to reduce the emission of pollutants, in particular climate-harming CO2, but also other noxious gases such as nitrous oxide. 
The exhaust gas from a hydrogen engine consist of pure water vapor. 
Hydrogen fuel cell technology is therefore locally emission-free. 
This means it keeps the air clean in cities, but does it protect the climate at the same time?
That depends on the conditions under which the hydrogen for the fuel cell vehicles was produced. 
Hydrogen production requires electrical energy. 
This electrical energy is used to break water down into its constituent elements, hydrogen and oxygen, via the process of electrolysis. 
If the electricity used comes from renewable energy sources, the hydrogen production has a neutral carbon footprint. 
If, on the other hand, fossil fuels are used, this will ultimately have a knock-on effect on the carbon footprint of the fuel cell cars using the hydrogen. 
How strong that effect is depends on the energy mix used. In this respect, hydrogen fuel cell cars are no different from other electric vehicles.
However, one disadvantage of producing hydrogen is the losses during electrolysis. 
The overall efficiency in the “power to vehicle drive” energy chain is therefore only half the level of a BEV.
However, hydrogen can be produced at times when there is an oversupply of electricity from renewable energy sources when the wind or solar energy currently produced is not otherwise used. 
The potential for this is huge.
Hydrogen is also a by-product of many industrial processes, where all too often it is treated as waste with no further use. 
The fuel cell battery offers a way to upcycle this hydrogen, although it must be cleaned first.
The energy balance sheet for hydrogen fuel cell cars also has to include the transportation and storage of the hydrogen. 
Depending on the transportation technology used (liquid or gaseous), different costs for compression, cooling, transport and storage arise. 
Due to its better transportability and storage ability, the trend is towards liquid hydrogen. 
Nevertheless, the transportation and storage of hydrogen are – at this stage – still a good deal more complex and energy-intensive than for gasoline or diesel.
 In contrast to fossil fuels, hydrogen can be produced anywhere there is access to electricity and water, theoretically even at the actual filling stations for fuel cell cars.
 A more highly developed infrastructure could thus shorten transportation distances significantly in future.
In conclusion, hydrogen fuel cell technology has the potential to make ecologically sustainable mobility possible. 
However, according to BMW’s expert Axel R?cker, this would above all require the use of renewable energy sources when producing the hydrogen used, as well as an expansion of the technological infrastructure in order to shorten transportation distances.
What happens when hydrogen reacts with oxygen in an uncontrolled reaction? 
Many people will remember this from chemistry class at school. 
What you get is an explosive reaction known as an oxyhydrogen gas reaction. 
Hydrogen is flammable, as this shows, but an uncontrolled reaction of hydrogen and oxygen in the operation of an FCEV is virtually impossible.
This is because, in hydrogen fuel cell cars, the hydrogen is stored in liquid form in thick-walled tanks that are particularly safe. 
As R?cker emphasizes, numerous crash tests have confirmed the safety of how hydrogen cars are designed: the tanks came out of the tests undamaged and no hydrogen leaked.
We should also not forget that hydrogen technology is not new, but is tried and tested in a range of fields. 
By way of example, refineries today use large quantities of hydrogen as a process gas in the processing of crude oil.
 Pipelines and hydrogen storage have also been in operation for decades.
BMW is convinced that hydrogen can make an important contribution to sustainable mobility alongside BEVs in the future – provided the necessary hydrogen infrastructure is in place and offers a good price for hydrogen, and the price of the vehicles falls. 
In those circumstances, hydrogen fuel cell cars can be the zero-emissions technology that allows users to maintain the flexible driving habits they are accustomed to.
The Hydrogen Council, a global initiative of leading energy, transport and industry companies, is also convinced of this. 
The council sees hydrogen not only as a sustainable future means of propulsion for fuel cell vehicles, but also as a clean energy source for heating, electricity and industry.
Each driver has different wants and needs when it comes to mobility. 
Oliver Zipse, CEO of BMW AG, puts it like this: “For us, the central questions are: Which kinds of propulsion and technology will our customers want in the future? 
And how do we realize their preferences with the maximum possible climate protection?”
 That’s why BMW will continue to focus on a range of different propulsion concepts – the classic combustion engine, fully electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids, and more research into hydrogen fuel cell cars.
To change or not to change? 
Learn why you really should switch to winter tires when it gets cold. 
We also have answers to other questions about your wheels and tires, like: What does tire balancing mean?
This fact is an indicator of how important your car tires are for road safety: The surface contact of all four tires combined is about the size of a piece of letter paper.
 This contact with the road is where everything happens – accelerating, braking and directional control. 
This is why you should take your tires seriously. 
Read on to find out everything you need to know.
Why not just drive with your winter tires in summer? 
Then you don't have to pay for two sets of tires and for changing them. 
The reason is simply that it’s dangerous – you're putting your safety, that of your passengers and other drivers at risk. 
Tires are a major factor in how safe your car is to drive. 
So what's the difference between summer tires and winter tires then?
The amount of rubber used in winter tires helps the tire stay soft and flexible so it can grip the road when it's cold outside. 
If you drive on winter tires in the summer, then your tires will be too soft, which means they will wear faster, reduce fuel efficiency and also need a greater distance for braking. 
The reason for this is because winter tires are more pliable at higher temperatures, so they wear more quickly on hard, dry asphalt.
The rubber compound used in summer tires is considerably harder than it is in winter tires so they can handle the heat of summer. 
If you drive in the winter with summer tires, stopping distances will be longer and it will be harder to drive in a straight line because the tires aren't soft enough to grip the road. 
If you're even able to get going, that is…
Summer tires have large contact patches which give the car a better grip on the road. 
Although the tread pattern has fewer grooves and sipes (thin slits that cut across the rubber) than that of winter tires, the grooves are bigger so they can move large quantities of water away to the sides, maximizing the contact with the road in order to avoid hydroplaning.
Winter tires, on the other hand, have a lot of grooves, which are also deeper than those in summer tires. 
It is these grooves that allow winter tires to keep their traction on snow and ice.
 There are also smaller channels called sipes that help the grooves keep the tire in contact with the surface.
Your car will skid if you drive on summer tires in winter – see for yourself what that looks like and how winter tires fare in the summer.
Experts agree: Winter tires are just for winter. 
But when should you change your tires? 
Whenever the temperature consistently stays below 50 degrees is when you need to use your winter tires. 
The rule of thumb is that below 50 degrees is when winter tires do best on the road and above 50 degrees is when summer tires do best.
Whether the use of winter tires is obligatory  depends on which country you live in. 
The US and most of Canada don’t have any tire laws requiring winter tires. 
But the Canadian province of Quebec does, so be sure to read up on it if you plan to drive there in winter.
In general, you should get new tires when your tread is worn down. 
The legal limit for tread depth is 2/32 of an inch, but experts recommend about 5/32 of an inch for winter tires and 4/32 of an inch for summer tires.
So how do you know if you have enough tread or not? 
An easy way to check the tire tread depth is to use the penny test. 
Insert the penny into your tire’s tread groove with Lincoln’s head upside down, facing you. 
Check several grooves on your tire, but especially those on the outside where the tread wears the fastest.
 If you can see all of Lincoln’s head, you have less than 2/32 inch remaining and it’s time to replace your tires.
A lot of drivers don't know that tires age even if they aren't being used. 
UV rays, humidity and temperature all degrade the material.
 This is why you should buy new tires every eight years even if you have plenty of tread left.
Each time you change the wheels or tires and have driven about 50 miles, you should retighten the lug nuts on the wheel rims.
 This is purely a precautionary measure, but under certain circumstances it is possible for the nuts to loosen up a bit during daily use.
P245/40 R19 98V - even though it may look like one, those numbers on your car's sidewall are not a secret code. 
They are known as the “tire code”.
The letter “P” at the beginning tells you it is a P-metric tire made to standards in the United States and intended for passenger vehicles. 
If a tire size has no letters at the beginning, then it is a Euro-metric tire constructed according to European standards.
The first three-digit number in the tire size is the tire width. 
So in this case, the width of the tire from sidewall to sidewall is 245 millimeters.
The 40 in this tire size tells you the aspect ratio, which means that the height is equal to 40 percent of the tire's width.
The letter “R” stands for “radial” because the layers run radially across the tire.
The 19 refers to the wheel diameter, which is the size of the wheel that the tire is intended to fit, i.e. this tire is made for a wheel with a 19" diameter.
The last part of the code (98V) is the load index and speed rating.
98 refers to the load index, or how much weight the tire can support when it’s properly inflated. 
If you consult a tire road index chart, you will find that the 98 means the tire can carry 1,653 pounds.
The final “V” at the end is a speed rating, indicating the maximum speed this particular tire can sustain under its recommended load capacity. 
Ratings range from A to Z, and in this case, V is equivalent to a maximum speed of 149 mph.
Only certified winter tires can carry the snowflake symbol, while the M+S (mud and snow) following it can often be found on all-weather tires as well. 
The Department of Transportation number on the tire indicates when the tire was made. 
For instance, 2519 means that the tire was produced in the 25th week of 2019.
If you live in the south where warm winters are common and snow is all too rare, then using all-weather tires year round will likely be fine. 
All-weather tires (or all-season tires) are halfway between summer tires and winter tires. 
Basically, all-weather tires are winter tires that have been given some aspects of summer tires, which means they are always a compromise between the two.
Low rolling resistance tires: This type of tire reduces resistance so you save on gas or electricity. 
The rubber compound used is different to that of regular tires, so the tread is smoother, meaning these tires have less grip and offer less comfort than comparable tires.
M+S stands for mud and snow and is often found on all-weather tires.
Offroad tires have a lot more rubber, which makes them a lot better on unpaved surfaces. 
But then, of course this means they do not perform as well on paved surfaces.
Runflat tires let you keep on driving even after your tire has been punctured, but only up to 50 miles at a maximum of 50 mph. 
And they should really only be installed on cars that have a tire-pressure monitoring system and are approved for this type of tire because otherwise you might not know you have a flat.
Racing slicks have very little little to no tread pattern. 
This is to make sure that as much of the tire as possible is hitting the ground. 
While they are not at all meant for use in the rain, under ideal track conditions, they provide optimum traction. 
However, most of these tires are not approved for street use.
DOT R compound tires are basically racing tires that have been created to comply with DOT requirements. 
They do have grooves, but they’re nothing like production tires. 
Although R compounds are street legal, they are terrible for driving on wet road pavement.
Studded snow tires are winter tires with metal studs that chip into the ice to create traction. 
They are not permitted in some states in the US, so you should check if you're planning to drive to other states in winter.
The correct air pressure is determined by car manufacturers and tire makers.
 You can consult a tire pressure chart – usually located in the car's door jamb or sometimes in the trunk, but always in your owner's manual – to find the right tire pressure for your tires. 
Tire pressure depends on the type of vehicle you have, the type of tire and the load. 
You should check your tire pressure regularly, especially before you take any long trips.
Certain car tires have a directional tread pattern, which channels water away and increases stability. 
These tires have arrows on them pointing in the direction that the tire needs to be mounted. 
When you change your tires, make sure they are all mounted in the right direction.
 If they are mounted incorrectly, it will result in a much noisier ride and they will wear faster.
After changing the entire tire (tire with the rim), they should be stored horizontally and on top of one another.
 You should store tires without the rim standing up, and turn them from time to time. 
For both options, the same conditions should be observed: as dry, cool and dark as possible. 
The way you store your tires affects the lifespan of the rubber compound.
How do you know if your tires are unbalanced?
 One obvious sign is when your steering wheel starts to vibrate. 
A car repair shop should have the right tools to check the balance of your tires and adjust them. 
To rebalance the tire, weights are applied to planes on the tire rim, inside and out.
Hydroplaning is something everyone worries about.
 It happens when there are large amounts of water on the road that the tires aren't able to displace. 
Water is pushed under the tire, creating a thin film that separates the tire from the road surface, causing it to lose traction. 
This results in a loss of steering and braking ability. 
Tires more likely to hydroplane are ones that are especially wide (they have more water to push away) and tires with a worn tread. 
When there is little tread left, the grooves fill with water so the tire can't displace the water. 
The same thing can happen if the tire pressure isn’t right.
What should you do if you suddenly find yourself hyrdoplaning? 
Take your foot off the gas, but do not brake. 
Avoid steering and disengage the clutch if your car is a standard. 
Wait until you feel the tires reconnect with the surface of the road.
What does tomorrow’s luxury look like? 
On a trip over the Furka Pass, masterchef Nenad Mlinarevic and hotelier Daniel Mani journey through time in a BMW 8 Series Gran Coup? – and its 30-year-old predecessor.
It’s 7 a.m. on the Furka Pass, high in the Swiss Alps. 
Silence. 
The only sound is the waterfall on the Rh?ne Glacier. 
The hairpin bends are undisturbed. 
From the Grimsel Pass opposite, the wind pushes impressive banks of fog deep into the valley. 
Nature could not have done a better job setting the stage for this meeting of present and past.
For over 100 years the Furka Pass has been a popular route for luxury travel. 
First via stagecoach, later by car. 
The BMW 8 Series (E31) was the most advanced luxury car of its day in the 1980s and 90s. 
But how do you bring the lure of the extraordinary into the future? 
How has the understanding of exclusivity changed since the first BMW 8 Series? 
We invited two Swiss experts in contemporary luxury to a special interview, and sent them on a search for clues – taking the scenic route on the famous mountain roads of their homeland in the BMW 8 Series of the present.
Where once guests of the Furka Pass Hotel Belvedere would have climbed out of their stagecoaches onto the Swiss glacier, the new BMW M850i xDrive Gran Coup? and its predecessor, the BMW 8 Series (E31) from 1989, are now parked. 
Nenad Mlinarevic and Daniel Mani step out of their vehicles and stare in silence. Their homeland has once again left them spellbound.
In the restaurant “focus” in Vitznau, near Lucerne, “Swiss Chef of the Year 2016” Nenad Mlinarevic cooked his way to two Michelin stars. 
But then he made the brave and unusual decision to give up his awards. 
Mlinarevic wanted a restaurant for everyone, to make more people happy with good food. 
Together with friends, he breathed new life into “Bauernsch?nke” in Zurich, and along the way developed food concepts for restaurants such as “Fritz & Felix” in the exclusive “Brenner's Park Hotel” in Baden-Baden, Germany.
How many of us get to say that our work takes us across one of the most beautiful Alpine passes?
 Hotelier Daniel Mani, together with his partners G?nter and Manfred Weilguni, designs unique wellness retreats for the modern traveler in Switzerland. 
His city hotel “Spedition” in Thun received this year's UNESCO Prix Versailles for the world's most beautiful interior. 
A drive over the Furka Pass lies the village of Flims, home to Mani’s design hotel, “The Hide” Hotel Flims – and the finish line for our experts’ Switzerland tour in the old and new generations of the BMW 8 Series.
Review. 
The two-car trip through time begins in Gletsch. 
The Furka Pass connects the hamlet in the canton of Valais with Andermatt in the canton of Uri. 
For Daniel Mani, who wants to do the first section in the original 8 Series, it’s a familiar sight.
 When he was a child his family would take this route across the mountains, while today he often commutes over the mountain roads between his hotels in Thun and Flims. 
“Our trips in the Furka Pass or the Grimsel Pass were a ritual. 
And when I got my driver's license I drove straight over the Furka Pass the very next day.”
 For Nenad Mlinarevic, too, the mountains are familiar territory. 
“They’re home. 
I particularly love the trip over the Julier Pass.” 
In order to enjoy the pass, comfort and good roadholding are key. 
But even more important is safety – and being able to accelerate out of corners fast. 
Both generations of the BMW 8 Series tick all the boxes.
Things change over time. 
As the perception of luxury cars has developed, so too has the understanding of luxury travel. 
Following its construction in 1882 and the beginning of tourism on the mountain passes, the Hotel Belv?d?re stood for nobility and pioneering spirit. 
But in the time since its fortunes faded, and the iconic building has now been closed for a number of years. 
This aspirational destination is now no more than a monument. 
Its allure, however, remains unbroken. 
Half an hour later, both vehicles are in front of the hotel. 
Driver change.
Daniel Mani takes his place in the driver’s seat of the BMW 8 Series Gran Coup?. 
He strokes the seam of the perforated seats and looks across to Mlinarevic. “
I love the feel of it. 
I wanted to hold the Swarovski crystal gear lever, to touch the speakers (? The best 6 songs to test car speakers). 
How does the milled metal feel? 
Like the leather on the dashboard? 
Whether it's a hotel room or a car, if a multitude of small details make a whole, that to me is perfect design.”
Where in the past luxury was associated with high-end products and expensive materials, today experiences like a trip or top-quality food enjoy a high status. 
“Luxury does not have to be ostentatious,” explains Daniel Mani.
 The days when bellboys or elevator operators served guests but were not allowed to talk to them are over. 
“Luxury is reducing the distance. 
Approaching people. Being a host with personality.”
That’s right,” Nenad Mlinarevic agrees. 
“Personality is the most important ingredient – both on the plate or at the reception”.
At the turn of the 20th century, luxury hotels attracted guests with conveniences such as electric elevators and speech tubes, which connected guests to the staff from the comfort of their rooms. 
Today, guests can control mood lighting and draw curtains from their tablets, or relax in their suite’s own private spa. 
“Guests staying in luxury hotels expect comfort and the right products. 
What we can offer beyond that is a human touch,” adds Daniel Mani. 
“A host who’s personally on site. Attention. 
And service that goes beyond expectations.”
Between the mountain slopes, the historic Furka Cogwheel Steam Railway winds its way up the gear rails yard by yard, as it did in its golden age. 
A hundred or so yards above it, the BMW 8 Series Gran Coup? glides around the bend, followed by its predecessor. 
Its V12 engine, in particular, was pioneering and an impressive demonstration of what was possible in the 1980s and 90s.
Innovation is a key factor for Nenad Mlinarevic. 
But luxury does not mean having to reinvent everything. 
It simply needs implementation with passion: “It’s much more effective to put your own spin on something that already exists,” Mlinarevic says. 
The 38-year-old is tall, dressed head-to-toe in black, tattooed, has a three-day-beard, and spices up every sentence with a pinch of humor. 
The new generation of gourmets is down-to-earth and innovative.
Comfort Food with a new twist is what the Michelin-starred chef calls his philosophy. 
By way of example, Mlinarevic reinterpreted Auguste Escoffier’s eponymous delicacy (invented in 1927) for the restaurant “Tatar”, including vegan variations. 
“I'm not one of those chefs who finishes cooking then spends another ten minutes moving the food around with a pair of tweezers. 
I aim for my food to be simple, but fun. 
You cannot see the effort behind the dishes. 
You have to taste it.”
The skilled restaurateur Daniel Mani can only agree. 
He says many people feel that fine dining is becoming more and more expensive, more exclusive, more extraordinary, whether in a big city or a Swiss Alps hotel. 
He shows Mlinarevic a picture on his smartphone. 
“I recently cooked for a billionaire heiress in my hotel. 
And I chose a very simple dish: meatloaf with potato pancakes. 
After she’d finished she came into the kitchen full of enthusiasm – she had not eaten that well in a long time. 
Simple cooking with the best ingredients is the new luxury for me.”
Modern luxury cars such as the BMW 8 Series Gran Coup? are tailored to the needs of the driver – and that includes under the hood. 
The pleasure trips that Nenad Mlinarevic likes to take are just as tailor-made – and he enjoys getting up into the high gears. 
For the culinary concept of his restaurant “Fritz & Felix”, he had a special idea. 
The focal point of the restaurant is a 3.1-ton (2.8-metric ton) cast-iron designer grill custom-made in La Coru?a, Spain. 
For the cost of a mid-class car. 
That, too, is modern luxury for both Mlinarevic and Mani – not just a meal on a plate, but an atmospheric, work-of-art experience of kitchen, interior and service.
Next on the menu for our two drivers are the 24 hairpin bends of the Oberalp Pass from Andermatt to Disentis, a dish perfectly prepared for a pleasure drive. 
Behind every bend (12 pro tips: How to find the racing line on any corner), a new panoramic delicacy awaits. 
A little while later, the two BMW 8 Series cars park in front of the finish line for this Switzerland tour trip through time: “The Hide” Hotel Flims, which opened in late 2018.
For Nenad Mlinarevic, modern luxury in the kitchen is no longer restricted to caviar, lobster and foie gras. 
“For me, luxury also means something rare. 
In my kitchen, for example, I use oils from Simon M?ller. 
The oil-maker produces a rosehip seed oil in his factory in Basel, Switzerland. 
There are only about 4 pints (2 liters) of it made each year. 
That is a luxurious ingredient.” 
The oil is produced with an oil press worth around 25,000 US dollars. 
But it gets even more exclusive than that – one of Mlinarevic’s producers gets to decide whether you can buy his product at all. 
“My baker not only calls himself “Eigenbr?tler”, he is a lone wolf,” Mlinarevic explains. 
“He selects his customers and shares the bread from his bakery only with people who he believes understand, appreciate and respect his craft.”
In contrast to the closed Furka Pass hotel the Belv?d?re, or the five-star resort the Chedi Andermatt – which put the small Swiss town of Andermatt on the luxury tourism map – “The Hide” Hotel Flims is scarcely recognizable as such from the outside. 
And it's like that on purpose.
 For host Daniel Mani, luxury is simple, smart and all about detail. 
Once again, the idea was implemented by the Swedish design studio Stylt Trampoli AB on the interior. 
The reward: all three Swiss hotels that Mani and his partners operate have been accepted into the Association of Design Hotels.
“We wanted to create a big living room. 
A lot of the furniture was custom-made to our specifications.” 
Customized aesthetics for guests who want to ditch their workday suit for a pair of shorts every now and then. 
The host himself is the living embodiment of the stress-free interpretation of luxury that prevails in his hotel. 
“Silicon Valley has done it,” Mani says. 
“The new luxury travel means consciously choosing hotels where you can move about unencumbered. 
What is priceless to our customers is the time and the personal attention we can give them. 
Experiences that you remember.”
What does a top chef value when he’s traveling? Mani asks Mlinarevic. 
“I don’t want to feel like I’m in some impersonal furniture shop or a baroque palace,” Mlinarevic says. “
I like hotels with lots of space and nice design.
 Hotels like “The Hide” that feel like I'm with friends. Friends who just happen to have a big house.
 I’d love to come back here for a private weekend stay some time.”
“This is one of my favorite places,” says Mani, opening the door to the sun terrace. 
Mlinarevic's eyes are immediately drawn to the designer outdoor chairs. 
He instantly recognizes the furniture of a Spanish designer label. 
“I’ve wanted to buy this for myself for a long time. Very nice!”
When Nenad Mlinarevic and Daniel Mani talk about details, you can see the rev counter of dedication in their eyes, whether it be about the preparation of potatoes or the development of a new restaurant or hotel. 
“As simple as needed, as good as possible,” explains Mlinarevic. 
“When you’re designing a restaurant, a hotel or luxury cars, you want to get everything right the first time.”
From the hotel lobby, Nenad Mlinarevic and Daniel Mani look out into the courtyard. 
The last rays of the day’s sunshine fall on the current and the previous generations of the BMW 8 Series. 
Where to next for another road trip? 
Another scenic route? 
“I'm doing a road trip through Australia. For a whole month. 
Time is my luxury,” Mlinarevic reveals. 
Mani is drawn to Tierra del Fuego. 
“I've been dreaming about it for a long time. 
This raw, barren landscape. 
Rain, sun, the sea, lonely roads – and me alone behind the wheel.” 
He runs his hand over the lines of the BMW 8 Series Gran Coup?. 
“Of course, I would love to take this car with me. 
But I have the luxury of memory now. 
Because a journey is measured in memories, not miles.”
A world premiere without the bright lights: BMW is the first manufacturer to produce a Vantablack car, painted with a light-absorbing paint in the blackest black. 
But where does this ultimate black come from? 
And what makes it so special?
Vantablack is not actually a color pigment or a paint, but a coating of carbon nanotubes. 
These have the property of absorbing incident light almost completely. 
Against a deep black background, objects coated in Vantablack material seem to disappear, as the perception of spatial depth is lost. 
This is because the human eye perceives shapes coated in Vantablack to be two-dimensional.
The BMW X6 show car has been coated with the Vantablack variant VBx2, which was originally developed for the fields of architecture and science. 
This Vantablack variant has a total hemispherical reflectance (THR) of one percent and is therefore still considered “superblack”, but it provides at least a little surface reflection from every angle.
 The great advantage of the VBx2 material is that it can be sprayed on.
Vantablack is a material made from carbon nanotubes that reflects virtually no light. 
It is considered the blackest black in existence. 
The rights lie with Surrey NanoSystems, which developed the substance for space and metrology applications. 
Vanta stands for vertically aligned carbon nanotube arrays.
The BMW X6’s superblack, non-reflective paint makes it unique: never before has a car been painted in Vantablack. 
Designed in collaboration with Surrey NanoSystems, the developer of Vantablack, this car is eye-catching in the truest sense of the word, thanks to its light-absorbing paint. 
“We have previously rejected a number of approaches from various carmakers,” says Ben Jensen, inventor of the Vantablack pigment and founder of Surrey NanoSystems. 
Only with the BMW X6 did the company feel it had the right vehicle for the job, he explains.
The technology was originally developed for space travel (? Read also: A real meteorite in a car). 
Vantablack is processed at temperatures above 800 degrees Fahrenheit and can be applied to sensitive materials such as aluminum. 
Vantablack-coated lenses make faint stars and distant galaxies visible, as solar flares stand little chance against the high-tech light-absorbing material.
Then came this collaboration with BMW. 
The design elements of the BMW X6, such as the illuminated kidney grille, the dual headlights and the strikingly designed tail lights, contrast with the smooth surface of the light-absorbing paint.
According to designer Hussein Al Attar, this was the special lure of the Vantablack car project.
 The non-reflective paint also opened up new perspectives for the designers, who were able to concentrate on silhouettes and proportions without having to consider reflections, shading and light.
This show car is destined to remain a one-off because of the enormous difficulty involved in making Vantablack paint suitably durable for everyday automotive use. 
The car paint needed for the world’s blackest black would also be extremely expensive, not to mention questionable in terms of road safety due to its level on the absorption spectrum. 
However, the technology is set to be used in laser-based sensor arrangements for driver assistance systems and thus in autonomous driving (? The path to autonomous driving).
The BMW Vision M NEXT is the latest vision vehicle by BMW. 
This design study gives you a sporty glimpse into the future. 
If you just can’t wait to see it, here are 4 ways you can experience the BMW Vision M NEXT today.
While everyone is talking about self-driving cars these days, the sporty silhouette and clear design of the BMW Vision M NEXT leave no doubt that the focus is on the driver, fully-engaged driving pleasure and sportiness. 
The vision car debuted at BMW’s new tech conference, the BMW Group #NEXTGen.
But you can glimpse the future right here, too – take a look at the design highlights of the dynamic BMW Vision M NEXT sports car in this gallery.
The BMW Vision M NEXT is a vision car that triggers instinctive reflexes in sports car fans. 
They want to touch the bodywork, enjoy the sound of the electric engine or just admire the dynamic body lines. 
And today, you can do exactly that – thanks to our four downloads for BMW lovers everywhere.
Going forward, the BMW Group will present new technologies, services and products at its own conference, the BMW Group #NEXTGen. Selected international journalists, analysts and other stakeholders will be invited to come together at the BMW Welt in Munich. 
The event will also be live-streamed for the general public.
Going to your garage and running your hand over the sporty contours of your BMW Vision M NEXT – whether or not this wondrous dream will ever come true is for fate to decide. 
But what you can already do is admire this vision car as a model and explore the shape of the BMW Vision M NEXT in miniature.
All you need is a 3D printer. Download the 3D printing data and print yourself a model BMW Vision M NEXT.
 The only limits on size are set by your printer.
Discover a new detail every day. 
It’s your model sports car, so you – and only you – get to decide the angles and directions you want to admire your miniature vision vehicle from.
And here’s a pro tip so you can enjoy your model BMW Vision M NEXT even more: Print the body and the rims separately. 
It will improve the outcome significantly.
The design of the “BMW Vision M NEXT” (below: the “vehicle”) as well as the word mark “BMW” and the BMW logo are the intellectual property of BMW AG and enjoy comprehensive legal protection for BMW AG worldwide.
 BMW AG hereby authorizes you to download and use the file “3D_model_BMW_Vision_M_NEXT” (below: the “file”) for the purpose of the one-time creation of a single model of the vehicle using 3D printing technology. 
The authorization is limited to the creation of the model for private use only.
The creation of several models of the vehicle, the commercial use of the model and/or the file, in particular the sale of the model to third parties, as well as any reproduction, publicly making available and/or any other transfer of the file to third parties are prohibited.
The use and/or depiction of the model in a context that may harm the reputation of BMW AG, its products or its trademarks is prohibited.
Electric cars are not known for their soundscape. 
The BMW Vision M NEXT, on the other hand, is an acoustic and emotional experience. 
Not least because legendary Hollywood film composer Hans Zimmer and BMW sound designer Renzo Vitale designed the boost sound especially for this concept vehicle. 
Find out what the BMW Vision M NEXT sounds like when the Power PHEV accelerates in Boost+ Mode.
You can download the sound file for Boost+ Mode here and set it as your ringtone or notification tone.
Hans Zimmer is known worldwide for his film music. 
He has composed countless soundtracks for Hollywood and has won numerous awards. 
Now Hans Zimmer has composed the sound for the BMW Vision M NEXT together with Renzo Vitale, acoustic engineer and sound designer at the BMW Group.
The film composer explains what connects him to BMW: “Sound has always been a key element in my emotional landscape even before I knew I was going to be making a living as a musician and composer. 
And the sound of a car has special resonance. 
My friends and I played a game in which we tried to guess the make and model of every passing vehicle without looking – and I could usually win.
I grew up with BMWs in my family and, as a child lying in bed at night in the dark, the sound of my parents’ car returning home spoke not only of power and beauty but also of safety and comfort and a sense of reassurance that all was well with the world.
The advent of the virtually silent electric vehicle gives me a minimalist sonic canvas upon which I am trying to create something subtly beautiful – a sonic experience which can convey the sense of confidence, well-being, joy and excitement I relished all those years ago, along with the thrill of owning and driving a technological and scientific miracle. 
I am very proud to be part of the team shaping the sound of the next generation of vehicles for the world to hear.”
Who is Hans Zimmer?
Hans Zimmer is a film score composer, arranger and record producer who works in Hollywood. 
He has won an Oscar and two Golden Globe Awards and has received 17 Grammy Award nominations – and won four of them. Famous works of the German composer include the score for “Pirates of the Caribbean”, “The Dark Knight”, “Pearl Harbor” and many other internationally famous films.
Was your childhood bedroom plastered with sports car posters? 
It was? 
Then we’ve got the perfect artwork for you! 
Download your very own poster of the Power PHEV BMW Vision M NEXT - an image that could hang on any wall.
Simply download the image file and print it out using a good color printer. 
The resolution of the image file allows a high-quality printout up to ANSI C [ISO A2] size.
Although there may be limits to picture quality, your dreams know no bounds. 
We hope you enjoy your BMW Vision M NEXT poster!
The latest vision vehicles by BMW look ahead to the future of autonomous driving. 
With the BMW Vision iNEXT and BMW Vision M NEXT vision vehicles, BMW is showcasing two versions of that future: in Boost Mode, the driver of the BMW Vision M NEXT does the driving with maximum support from the driver assistance systems, whereas the BMW Vision iNEXT in Ease Mode takes care of the driving autonomously, while the driver can use the time to do other things.
With the BMW Vision M NEXT, the focus is clearly on driving fun where the user is in complete control. 
The driver can select the driving setting on the steering wheel, like in a Formula E race car. 
This includes Boost+ Mode, which gives the driver extra engine power at the push of a button and demonstrates once again just how sporty the BMW Vision M NEXT is.
BMW and Mercedes have always been rivals, but now the car manufacturers are collaborating on car sharing services. 
That means car sharing members have the option to temporarily suspend their allegiance to their favorite brand – BMW drivers can try a Mercedes and Mercedes fans can take a BMW for a spin. 
And at our request, two car sharing users have done just that…
Many things in life require making a choice. “
Star Wars” or “Star Trek?”
 Cats or dogs? 
However, the most important choice of all is whether to drive a BMW or a Mercedes. 
Hard core fans will tell you that both is simply not an option.
But now, the two German car makers have joined forces by merging car sharing companies DriveNow (BMW Group) and Car2Go (Daimler) to create SHARE NOW. 
As a result, the more than four million car share users worldwide will now have a much bigger number of vehicles to choose from.
This newly created fleet also builds bridges. 
Now even diehard BMW and Mercedes fans can test drive the other brand without a hassle. 
This is the exact challenge that we set up for two of our car sharing users for BMW.com.
Daniel M. is a passionate BMW fan who stepped up to accept the challenge of driving a Mercedes GLA from Car2Go’s fleet for us. 
Katharina K. is a true blue Mercedes girl who selflessly volunteered to try out a BMW X2 from DriveNow.
We’re not just writing this as click bait – you really won’t believe what happened! 
But we’ll let them tell you their stories themselves…
Daniel M. is a 34-year-old architect from Munich. 
Our experiment put this staunch BMW fan behind the wheel of a Mercedes for the first time ever.
I would give up my job and all my money before giving up my car brand. 
I chose my driving school specifically because they used BMWs.
 I never get into a taxi with one of those stars on the hood unless it’s a dire emergency (like when it’s raining cats and dogs). 
Driving a BMW is one of the great joys of my life!
But my decades-old weltanschauung is starting to come apart at the seams: BMW and Mercedes have joined forces, at least as far as car sharing goes. 
And because the writers at BMW.com asked me so nicely, I decided to bite the bullet and find out what a Mercedes GLA can do.
My first impression of the outside was pretty good, but what I really liked when I got in were the sweet leather seats. 
Not the washable fake kind they have in taxis that I usually associate with Mercedeses (is that even a word?) 
Even cooler were the propellers in the air vents, which made me feel right at home in this foreign land. 
And lo, what have we here? An ignition switch. 
How quaint! 
It makes me a little nostalgic to see one of these. 
It reminds me of my first car – an E46 with a proper ignition switch.
Here’s where the problems start. 
In my BMW 330i, everything is where it’s supposed to be. 
The Mercedes GLA has carelessly relocated many features. 
As I’m diligently looking around for the parking brake, I discover it in the form of an extra pedal way off in the left field.
 In a stick shift, that would mean a total of four pedals. 
Gives a whole new meaning to “four on the floor,” doesn’t it? 
Add one or two more of those and you’ve got yourself a nice little organ there.
I’m not ready to head downtown just yet though because I still haven’t found everything on this fun little scavenger hunt. 
I do discover that the blinker switch is where the wipers should be, but I drive a Bimmer, so who needs a blinker? 
It’s like they didn’t want me to find the windshield wipers.
Finally, I’ve found all the relevant parts and I set off. 
And you know what?
 I’m surprised at how comfortable a ride this is.
 Now I understand why Mercedes buyers are two years older on average than BMW buyers. 
Is that maybe why the teenager at the drive-through window of “my” Car2Go Mercedes is yelling at me like I’m half deaf?
I have to admit that the GLA is a really smooth and fun ride.
 I’m even considering buying myself a Daimler – in 20 or 30 years maybe. 
So there’s my test drive at an end. 
It was fun. 
But it would have been better without the rain and me having to constantly deal with the blinker/wiper conundrum.
Katharina K. is a 36-year-old doctor from Stuttgart. 
The lovely Mercedes lady bravely sat behind the wheel of a BMW for the first time in our BMW vs Mercedes experiment.
After I was born, my father, who naturally worked for Daimler, brought me home from the hospital in our Mercedes 300 D. 
When I was a teenager, he told me that I was never to bring home a boyfriend who drove a BMW.
 Such a thing would have never crossed my mind anyway. Honestly. 
It’s not like one day you root for Harvard and the next for Yale. 
I’m a Benz girl through and through.
So this will be my first fling with a car with the white and blue propeller on it. 
My first thought as I walk up to the BMW X2 is that I like the cool gold metallic color.
 I walk around the car and see BMW logos glaring back at me seemingly everywhere I look. 
Nothing like subtlety and understatement, is there? 
It's not really surprising if you think about it; Bavarians are known for their, ah, well-developed sense of self-worth.
Once I’m inside, however, I must admit that the interior is pretty chic. 
Sitting behind the wheel, I’m starting to feel the perfidy of my actions. 
Am I compromising myself? 
Is this the start of something bigger than the both of us?
 I tell myself that I’m just helping out the nice DriveNow car sharing company people and I will explain it all to my dad later.
 To help calm my nerves, I carefully place a Mercedes sticker over the BMW logo on the steering wheel. 
Much better.
At this point, I’m ready to get this BMW X2 out on the road, but nothing seems to be in the same place as in my Mercedes A Class. 
After an extensive search, I find everything, including the blinker.
 I’d always wondered if BMWs had blinker switches! 
And amazingly, the right blinker works perfectly fine too – even though only Bernie Sanders is more determined to stay on the left than a BMW driver on the highway.
After the first few miles, I have to say that it really hugs the curves, which makes it fun to drive. 
Now I am personally acquainted with every manhole cover in this city – driving the BMW X2 is a bit more bracing than I’m used to. 
But what I want to know is this: If BMW builds such great race cars, why were they only Formula 1 world champions that one time in 1983? 
Mercedes manages to win the title every year –  just saying.
After being bounced around like Lewis Hamilton in Monaco, my BMW adventure finally ends at a gas station. 
But it’s not completely over because as I go to fill the tank, I find nothing.
 I panicked a little and considered drilling a hole for the tank nozzle.. 
Maybe that’s why they have two extra BMW logos towards the back: to remind Mercedes SHARE NOW customers that the tank is on the other side. 
All in all, it was a truly novel experience. 
Thank you shary much!
Long distance driving makes you tired, so falling asleep is a real danger. 
But how do you prevent that? 
Coffee? 
Loud music? 
Or a break and a cat nap? 
Read on for the best tips on how to stay awake while driving.
We’ve all felt drowsy on the road before, but many people underestimate just how dangerous tiredness at the wheel really is.
According to a study published in the British journal Occupational and Environmental Medicine, researchers in Australia and New Zealand found that drowsy driving has some of the same effects as drunk driving. 
They found that people who drive after being awake for 17 to 19 hours performed worse than those with a blood alcohol level of 0.05 percent, which is the legal limit for drunk driving in most western European countries, though it is a little higher in most U.S. states at 0.1 percent or 0.08 percent.
Fatigued drivers may be plagued by so-called microsleep, where a driver nods off for a few seconds.
This is highly dangerous, as a five-second failure to stay awake while driving at 55 mph (approx. 90 km/h) would mean you’ve traveled around 135 yards (120 meter) down the road when you were asleep, which is more than enough time to cause a crash.
There are often warning signs of impending microsleep, like frequent yawning and blinking, heavy eyelids and irritated eyes. 
When these symptoms occur, it’s time to do something about it.
Want to know the best way to stay awake and how to prevent an unintended nap? 
Look no further – read our tips below.
Get enough sleep: The only true remedy for fatigue and drowsiness is sleep. 
Above all, the key thing for long distance driving is to be well rested. 
So don’t embark on a long journey after major stress and with a bad night’s sleep behind you.
Power naps: On longer trips you should take a cat nap at least every four hours. 
The benefits of napping are clear, but these power naps should be no longer than 20 minutes (as recommended by the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration), as otherwise your body may head into deep sleep.
Avoid your natural low points: Adjust your driving times or your journey to avoid your body’s biological low points, dictated by your circadian rhythm. 
These are generally between 2 a.m. and 5 a.m. and about 1 p.m. and 3 p.m. 
While you may miss the traffic by planning a long car ride in the middle of the night, it’s definitely not a good way to prevent the dangers of drowsy driving.
Take regular breaks: One of the most important long distance driving tips is to make sure you take regular breaks. Park up, relax, and leave your vehicle. 
A short walk in the fresh air not only gives you a chance to stretch your limbs, but also boosts the supply of oxygen into your bloodstream, increasing your ability to concentrate.
Food: The right food also affects your condition. 
Don’t drive hungry or with a full stomach – both will inhibit your performance. 
Eat light snacks for driving such as vegetables, which provide an energy boost while at the same time being a healthy choice. 
Don’t consume heavy food during your journey, as this will only induce drowsiness.
Fluids: You should always drink enough fluids, something that doesn’t just apply to long distance driving. 
Drink as much water (or unsweetened juices) as possible.
The right amount of distraction: It can be helpful to have other things to do on a long car ride, just not so much that they keep you from concentrating on the road. 
An exciting audiobook can keep you mentally fresh during a monotonous activity like driving long distances. 
Even better is a conversation partner, one who entertains you and notices when you’re getting tired. In an ideal scenario, he then takes over at the wheel and gets you both to your destination safe and sound.
Medication and medical conditions: Be careful when driving after taking certain medication. 
Side effects may include drowsiness and diminished attention, which could result in drowsy driving or even microsleep. 
Sleeping pills, psychoactive drugs, analgesics and even allergy medicines can have this effect. 
If you’re unsure about a medicine’s effects, you should contact your doctor or pharmacist. 
The same applies if you suffer from medical conditions like chronic fatigue or a sleep disorder.
Candy will give you a quick boost of energy.
 But your blood sugar level will then drop just as quickly and the tiredness will return, so it is just a short-term fix and not the best way to maintain your safety when driving long distances.
It’s a similar story with energy drinks and coffee: After the initial lift from caffeine and other similar substances, the fatigue soon comes back.
Airing out: Briefly opening the windows will give you an extra burst of oxygen (and perhaps a shock to the system that will provide a short blast of alertness). 
This trick, too, wears off quickly and therefore also goes in the “short-term fixes” folder.
Chewing gum stimulates the circulation of blood in the brain and reduces the symptoms of sleep deprivation – but only temporarily. 
It’s no cure for drowsy driving over prolonged periods.
Even loud music only helps briefly. 
What’s more, when you’re tired, you’re already less receptive to what’s going on around you, something not improved by a music system on full blast. 
This, in turn, is bad for traffic safety.
Driver assistance systems can also help you with drowsy driving. 
Typical symptoms of fatigue include careless driving and leaving your lane. 
There are various driver assistance systems to help prevent these things from happening.
 The Steering and Lane Control Assistant and side collision protection sound an alarm if you perform unnatural steering wheel movements or are in danger of being hit from the side. .
If this happens because you’re struggling with tiredness at the wheel, you should definitely take a break
Digital assistants such as the BMW Intelligent Personal Assistant also work to help you combat tiredness. 
Simply say “Hey BMW, I’m tired!” and your vehicle will launch the reinvigoration program, which is designed to combat fatigue via temperature adjustment, lighting effects and music. 
In fact, after a few hours of uninterrupted driving, a BMW tells you to take a break. 
If you need a bed, the navigation system, supported by the BMW Concierge Service, will guide you to the nearest hotel.
The golden rule, and one that always applies, is safety first. 
If you’ve followed these safe driving tips to help you prevent drowsy driving but you’re still tired, you need to stop! 
Break up your journey and continue only after a good night’s rest. 
The best way to tackle a lack of sleep is always with sleep.
Why know your traffic signs?
Traffic signs play a vital role in directing, informing and controlling road users' behaviour in an effort to make the roads as safe as possible for everyone.
 This makes a knowledge of traffic signs essential.
Not just for new drivers or riders needing to pass their theory test, but for all road users, including experienced professional drivers.
We live in times of change.
Society, technology and the economy all play their part in changing the way we travel.
New road signs conveying new messages and in new formats are introduced from time to time, so drivers or riders who passed their driving test a few years ago need to keep up to date or run the risk of failing to understand or comply with recently introduced signs.
Having experience is all very well, but it's not enough if your knowledge is out of date.
The central administrations above are responsible for the UK’s strategic road network.
Strategic roads are the highways that link cities, areas of population, ports and airports.
Most motorways and some “A” roads are strategic roads.
Local or regional highway authorities are responsible for local roads, and this includes a few motorways, all other “A” roads and all other public roads.
While responsibility for placing, erecting and maintaining traffic signs is split among these bodies, it is important that signs are consistent both in appearance and in the way they are used.
To ensure that the UK has a uniform traffic signing system, signs must conform to the designs prescribed in the Traffic Signs Regulations and General Directions (although some signs may have been specially authorised by the Secretary of State).
The Traffic Signs Manual, published by TSO, provides detailed guidance for those responsible for designing and installing traffic signs.
It was probably the Romans who first used "traffic signs" in Britain.
They marked off road distances at one thousand paces (about one mile) with stones called "milliaries".
Most early signposts were erected by private individuals at their own expense.
 A law  passed in 1648 required each parish to place guide posts at its crossroads, but it was not until after the General Turnpike Act 1773 that these "guide posts" or"fingerposts" became more common.
During the second half of the nineteenth century, bicycles became more popular.
Steep hills and sharp bends were very dangerous for early cyclists, and "danger" and "caution" signs were erected at the top of steep hills.
Signs showing  skull and crossbones were erected at the most dangerous places.
 Local authorities and cycling organisations installed an estimated 4000 warning signs.
The Motor Car Act 1903 made local authorities responsible for placing certain warning and prohibitory signs.
 The signs were for crossroads,steep hills and dangerous bends.
 "A" and "B" numbering of roads was introduced in 1921, and these numbers were shown on fingerpost-style signs alongside the destination and distance.
 Town or village name signs and warning signs for schools, level crossings and double bends were introduced at the same time.
The main task of signposting our roads during the 1920s and 1930s still fell on the motoring organisations, but in in 1931 a committee chaired by Sir Henry Maybury was asked to recommend improvements to the signing then in use, and by 1933 further new signs began to appear, including "No entry" and "Keep left" signs, warning signs for narrow roads and bridges, low bridges, roundabouts and hospitals.
 Other signs followed during the 1930s, including "Halt at major road ahead".
 These formed the basis of our traffic signing until the early 1960s.
It was not until after 1918 that white lines began to appear on British roads, and during the 1920s their use spread rapidly.
 In 1926 the first Ministry of Transport circular on the subject laid down general principles on the use of white lines.
 In the 1930s, white lines were used as "stop" lines at road junctions controlled by either police or traffic lights.
 Reflecting road studs (often referred to as "cat's eyes") first came into use in 1934.
 By 1944, white lines were also being used to indicate traffic lanes and define the boundary of the main carriageway at entrances to side roads and lay-bys, and in conjunction with "halt" signs.
 In 1959, regulations came into effect to control overtaking by the use of double white lines.
It was realised that the old system of signing would not be adequate for motorways, and the  Anderson Committee was set up in 1958 to consider new designs.
It recommended much larger signs, with blue backgrounds.
Then, in 1961, the Worboys Committee began to review the complete system of traffic signing.
 It concluded that the UK should adopt the main principles of the European system, with the message expressed as a symbol within a red triangle (for warning signs) or a red circle (for prohibitions).
 Work began on the conversion of British signs in 1965, and this is still the basic system in use today.
Later developments include the use of yellow box markings at busy road junctions, special signs and road markings at pedestrian crossings, mini roundabouts and bus lanes.
 Regulations published in 1994 included new regulatory and warning signs and simplified the yellow line system of waiting restrictions that was originally introduced in the 1950s.
 Further Regulations were published in 2002.
More use is being made of new technology to provide better information to drivers on hazards, delays and diversions.
 The future will undoubtedly see more developments in traffic signing to keep pace with the changing traffic demands on our roads.
There are three basic types of traffic sign: signs that give orders, signs that warn and signs that give information.
 Each type has a different shape.
 A further guide to the function of a sign is its colour.
 All triangular signs are red.
There are a few exceptions to the shape and colour rules, to give certain signs greater prominence.
The words "must" or "must not", when used in the descriptions that follow, refer to legal requirements that have to be obeyed.
Most regulatory signs are circular.
 A RED RING or RED CIRCLE indicates a prohibition.
 A BLUE CIRCLE generally gives a positive (mandatory) instruction or indicates a route for use only by particular classes of vehicle (see sections on tram signs and bus and cycle signs).
Remember that in areas of street lighting (other than on motorways) a 30 mph limit applies unless another limit is specifically signed.
Each year there are hundreds of incidents in which bridges are struck by vehicles too high to pass under them.
 Both rail and road users have been killed in these incidents.
 Look out for signs in this section and make sure that you are not a bridge basher.
All bridges with a clearance of less than 16 feet 6 inches (about 5 metres) are normally signed.
 Both regulatory roundels and warning triangles can be used, depending on the type of bridge.
Bridges particularly at risk from strikes may have a variable message sign that is activated by high vehicles passing through an infra-red beam.
When the sign is activated, four amber lamps flash, the top pair alternating with the bottom pair.
At non-arch bridges mandatory signs may be used; it is unlawful for an overheight vehicle to pass one of these.
 They are placed on the bridge and at the side of the road in front of the bridge.
A warning sign indicates, in imperial units, the maximum headroom under a bridge or other overhead obstruction.
 There may be an additional sign showing the height in metric units.
 These PD signs may be sited well in advance of a bridge, with the distance, either in yards or miles, shown on a plate; this may have an arrow to indicate that the bridge is on a side road at a junction ahead.
Chord markings used indicate the points between which different headrooms over different parts of an arch bridge are available.
The maximum safe headroom at an arch bridge is shown on the triangular warning signs.
 Road markings guide high vehicles through the highest part of the arch.
 Drivers of all vehicles should give way to oncoming high vehicles in the middle of the road when there is insufficient room to pass.
 Drivers of cars and other low vehicles may keep to the left-hand side of the road, crossing the road markings, where this would enable them to pass oncoming vehicles in safety.
To improve the conspicuity of a bridge, black and yellow bands may be added to the arches or beams and to the abutments.
Roundels or warning triangles will sometimes be incorporated into directional signs that may also indicate an alternative route to take to avoid the low bridge.
Roundels may also be incorporated into road works signs to indicate temporary height restrictions.
Some crossings have flashing red road traffic signals; these mean STOP (and this applies to pedestrians too).
 A steady amber light shows before the red lights begin to flash, as at ordinary road traffic signals; this means STOP unless it is unsafe to do so.
 If the red lights flash for more than three minutes without a train arriving (other than at crossings with full barriers), or any barrier is lowered without the lights flashing, phone the signal operator.
 When the barriers rise, do not proceed until the signals go out.
 If your vehicle breaks down or stalls on a crossing, get yourself and your passengers out of the vehicle as soon as possible.
 Phone the signal operator and follow the instructions given.
 Stand well clear of the crossing if the alarm sounds, the signals show or the barriers lower.
Amber lights and audible warnings followed by flashing red lights warn that a train is approaching and that the barriers are about to come down.
 You must STOP.
 The red lights flash all the time the barriers are down, but the audible warning might stop.
 If another train is approaching, the barriers will stay down; the lights will continue to flash and, if there is an audible warning, the sound will change.
 Full directions for using these crossings are given on roadside signs.
 You must stop even if the gates or barriers have been left open.
 Always close the gates or barriers after crossing.
The St Andrew’s cross is used at level crossings where there are no gates or barriers.
 At automatic crossings, you must always STOP when the traffic light signals show.
 At crossings with "give way" signs, always look out for and give way to trains.
Trams can run on roads used by other vehicles and pedestrians.
 The part of the road used by trams (the "swept path") may have a different colour or textured surface to the rest of the road, or it may be edged with special road markings.
 Trams cannot move out of the way of other road users!
Areas such as shopping streets may be signed as "pedestrian zones".
Depending on the extent of the vehicle entry restrictions, such areas may be paved without the usual separation between footway and carriageway and may not have yellow lines and kerb markings to indicate waiting and loading restrictions.
 Instead restrictions are detailed on zone entry signs and repeater plates.
 The entry signs may indicate that buses, taxis, disabled badge holders or permit holders may enter the zone.
Various examples of zone entry signs are shown below
Where loading restrictions apply in addition to waiting restrictions ("loading" means both loading and unloading), these are indicated by both yellow kerb marks and white plates.
These plates may be combined with the yellow "no waiting" plates.
As the marks are placed intermittently along the kerb, a white plate is normally erected at the first mark (where the loading restriction begins) and may include an arrow indicating the direction along the road in which the loading restriction applies.
Where a white plate does not indicate the days of the week, the restrictions apply at the same times every day, including Sunday.
 If a bank holiday falls on a day when the restrictions are in operation, the restrictions apply in the normal way unless the plate states that they do not.
Routes recommended for goods vehicles have black signs with a white lorry symbol.
 Other direction signs may incorporate black lorry route panels.
The most suitable route for lorries to a particular destination may be different from that for other vehicles.
The lorry symbol faces in the direction inwhich vehicles turn at a junction.
 For ahead destinations, the symbol generally faces left.
 Where route numbers for motorways and primary routes are shown, these are placed on blue and green patches respectively.
 On all-purpose roads, the symbols may be used on separate signs with yellow backgrounds.
Temporary diversion signs may be required when a road is closed for reasons other than an emergency, e.g.to carry out works.
Direction signs specifically for cyclists have a blue background and include a white pedal cycle symbol.
 Most are free-standing signs, but some primary and non-primary route direction signs may incorporate a blue panel indicating a route for cyclists that is different from that for other traffic.
 The cycle symbol may also be used on pedestrian signs where cyclists and pedestrians share the route (see page 113).
 Some local authorities may have their own numbered cycle routes using different coloured patches.
 Where a cycle route leads to a national or regional route, the number of the route to which it leads may be shown in brackets.
Temporary signs are put out when vehicles are to be stopped for an excise license check or vehicle inspection.
 These signs may apply to specific types of vehicle such as goods vehicles or buses, and they may indicate which lanes to use.
On some busy roads, lane control signals are used to vary the number of lanes available to give priority to the main traffic flow.
Traffic signs control traffic flow, making streets and highways safe for drivers,bicyclists and pedestrians.
These signs, which are posted by the Indiana Department of Transportation and local governments, use colors, shapes, written messages, and symbols to help drivers quickly understand the information.
 Understanding these signs is necessary to obtain an Indiana driver’s license.
The background color of a traffic sign helps to identify the type of information displayed on the sign.
 There are seven colors commonly used for signs.
Red traffic signs convey traffic regulations that require drivers to take immediate action to avoid threats to traffic safety.
 A “Wrong Way” sign is an example of a traffic sign with a red background.
Yellow or fluorescent yellow-green traffic signs prepare drivers for specific road conditions and hazards ahead, and alert drivers to nearby school zones.
 A “Slippery When Wet” sign is one example of a traffic sign with a yellow background.
Fluorescent yellow-green signs warn drivers of nearby schools, pedestrians, bicycles, playgrounds, and school bus routes.
 A “Pedestrian Crossing” sign for a school crossing is an example of a traffic sign that may have a fluorescent yellow-green background.
White traffic signs display traffic regulations, such as speed limits, that drivers must obey, as well as helpful information such as state highway markers.
 A “No Turn On Red” sign is an example of a traffic sign with a white background.
Orange traffic signs warn drivers of temporary traffic conditions.
 A “Flagger Ahead” sign is an example of a traffic sign with an orange background.
Green traffic signs indicate permitted movements and directions or guidance, such as highway entrances and exits or distance to upcoming destinations.
 A sign showing distance is an example of a traffic sign with a green background.
Blue traffic signs display road services and evacuation route information.
 A sign showing information about amenities at an upcoming exit is an example of a traffic sign with a blue background.
Brown traffic signs indicate nearby recreational and cultural interest sites.
 A sign showing a nearby state park is an example of a traffic sign with a brown background.
The shape of a traffic sign also indicates the type of information displayed on the sign.
Circular traffic signs alert drivers to upcoming railroad crossings.
Traffic signs with three sides of equal length warn drivers to slow down when approaching an intersection, and to be prepared to come to a complete stop in order to yield to other drivers or pedestrians.
Pennant-shaped traffic signs are posted on the left-hand side of two-way roads to warn drivers not to pass other vehicles on the left.
Rectangular traffic signs display one of three types of information.
 They may convey traffic regulations that drivers must obey, such as speed limits and turn movement prohibitions like “No Left Turn.
They may provide helpful information such as route marker signs that identify a state highway, or destination signs that give the direction to the next town.
Diamond-shaped traffic signs warn drivers of upcoming road conditions and hazards.
 A “Divided Highway Ends” sign is an example of a diamond-shaped traffic sign.
Warning signs prepare drivers for upcoming road conditions and hazards.
The following signs are examples of Indiana’s warning traffic signs:
Yellow or fluorescent yellow-green signs warn drivers that they are entering an area near a school in which children may be crossing the road.
A slow-moving vehicle emblem has an orange fluorescent center and red reflective borders, and indicates a slow-moving vehicle which cannot exceed 25 miles per hour.
Traffic regulation signs regulate traffic speed as well as movement and display rules which drivers must obey.
Traffic guidance signs provide drivers with information about the type of road they are traveling on, upcoming highway entrances and exits, and distances to various destinations.
Driver services and recreation signs provide drivers with information about nearby amenities, parks and recreational areas.
Traffic control devices such as stop lights and signs are used to control traffic flow and indicate right of way at intersections and pedestrian crossings.
A green light means go.
 If you are facing a green light, you have the right of way and may drive through an intersection as long as the intersection is clear of other vehicles and pedestrians.
A steady yellow light means the green light has ended and the signal is about to turn red.
 If you are facing a steady yellow light, your right of way is ending.
 If you are approaching the intersection and are too close to stop safely, you may complete your movement.
A red light means stop.
 If you are facing a red light, you may not enter the intersection until the light facing you turns green and the intersection is clear.
If you are facing a green arrow displayed with a red or green light, you have the right of way and may turn through an intersection, as long as the intersection is clear.
If you are facing a green light displayed without an arrow, you may turn through an intersection as long as the intersection is clear.
 You must yield the right of way to all oncoming traffic.
 Only one vehicle at a time may move into an intersection to turn left.
A yellow flashing arrow for a turning movement means that you may proceed with the turn only after you have yielded the right of way to pedestrians and oncoming traffic.
If you are facing a steady yellow light or arrow, your right of way is ending.
If you are facing a red light or arrow, your right of way has ended.
If you are in the middle of an intersection, you may turn once oncoming traffic has stopped.
 If you are facing a red light or arrow, you may not enter the intersection until the light facing you turns green and the intersection is clear.
To turn right through an intersection with a red light or arrow, when permissible, you must come to a full stop, check to make sure that there are no vehicles and pedestrians in the path of your turn or about to enter the path of your turn, check that there is not a “No Turn on Red” sign and use the correct lane.
You may turn left through an intersection with a red light or arrow if you are turning from a one-way street onto a one-way street.
 You must also come to a full stop, check to make sure that there are no vehicles and pedestrians in the path of your turn or about to enter the path of your turn, check that there is not a “No Turn on Red” sign, and use the correct lanes.
A yellow flashing light displayed without an arrow at an intersection means that you should slow down and use caution when traveling through an intersection.
 If turning left, you must yield to oncoming traffic and pedestrians.
 All traffic on the cross street is required to yield the right of way to you.
 However, you should watch for other vehicles or pedestrians attempting to cross the intersection.
A red flashing light at an intersection is equivalent to a stop sign and means that you must come to a complete stop before proceeding with caution to enter the intersection.
If you are facing a red flashing light at an intersection at which cross-traffic is not required to stop, you may proceed only when the intersection is clear and when you will not interfere with the right of way of cross-traffic.
If you are facing a red flashing light at an intersection at which all traffic is required to stop, you may proceed only after you have stopped and yielded the right of way to any vehicle that is already in the intersection, any vehicle that stopped before you and is entering the intersection, and any vehicle that arrived at the same time as you and is to your right.
If you are approaching a red light or a stop sign, you must stop at the solid white stop line.
 If there is no stop line, you should come to a complete stop perpendicular to the stop sign or before entering the crosswalk on your side of the intersection.
 If there is no crosswalk, you should come to a complete stop before entering the intersection.
Often people who are operating motorcycles, motor driven cycles and bicycles get stuck at a red light and the signal fails to change to green.
 These individuals may avoid prolonged waits at red lights under the following condition:
An operator approaching an intersection controlled by a traffic signal may proceed through a steady red light if the operator comes to a complete stop for at least two minutes and exercises due caution 
This rule does not apply to autocycles
A yield sign indicates that a driver must slow down when approaching an intersection and be prepared to come to a complete stop if a vehicle or pedestrian with the right of way is approaching from another direction.
If you are approaching a yield sign, a vehicle approaching from another direction with the right of way should not have to brake to avoid a collision with you.
If you are approaching an intersection with a non-operating signal, you should stop before entering the intersection.
Before entering a street from an alley or driveway, you should stop and yield the right of way to other vehicles.
Pedestrian signals alert pedestrians when they may safely cross a street or intersection.
Pedestrian signals display the word “WALK” or a symbol of a person walking when pedestrians may safely cross a street or intersection.
 At some intersections, there is a button near the base of the pedestrian signal or stop sign that may be pushed to activate the walk signal.
Pedestrian signals display the words “DON’T WALK” or a symbol of a raised hand when it is not safe for pedestrians to cross a street or intersection.
 The words or symbols flash to alert pedestrians that the time in which to safely cross the street or intersection is ending.
A pedestrian hybrid beacon is a signal used to facilitate pedestrian crossing, and which may be found at a mid-block crosswalk.
 The pedestrian hybrid beacon is dark unless it has been activated by a pedestrian.
Once activated by a pedestrian, the pedestrian hybrid beacon will display a flashing yellow light to allow drivers to clear the crossing.
 The flashing yellow will be followed by a steady yellow light to warn drivers that their right of way is ending.
 Then, two steady red lights will be displayed while the pedestrian crosses, and then the two red lights will flash to allow drivers to proceed through if the crossing is clear of pedestrians.
 The pedestrian hybrid beacon will then go dark until activated again by a pedestrian.
Theft from lorries and haulage containers is a growing problem throughout Europe and those with sides made of fabric are particularly vulnerable to attack.
Cargo containers spend a lot of time unattended in loading or storage depots and their tarpaulin covers, while light and convenient to use, offer little protection against the knives of vandals and thieves.
By 1996, so serious had this problem become that three companies, a French manufacturer of haulage containers, a Belgian plastics and composites company and a large Belgian rail/road haulier joined forces with CRIF, a Belgian collective industrial research centre, to develop a new protection system for  containers.
The work was supported under the EU's CRAFT scheme and initial studies pointed towards the development of a better material for fabric screens, which would retain the advantages of lightness, flexibility and ease of cleaning, while offering great strength and resistance to attack. 
But where might one find such a material?
As part of its work, ESA’s Technology Transfer Network (TTN) surveys non- space companies to see what kind of technology they might need.
 It was through this mechanismthat the Belgian TTN partner Creaction circulated the requirement for a vandal-resistant textile.
By good fortune, a French company Societ? Ariegeoise de Bonneterie, following the success of its flame-proof textiles used on Ariane rockets, had modified its knitting technique to create a flexible fabric from steel wire which was extremely difficult to cut and well- suited to the application.
A newspaper article about this new material was spotted by Novespace, the French TTN partner at the time,and so the connection was made.
Parcouri, a consortium of eight European companies that includes a Dutch multinational producer of vehicle covers and a French SME specialising in coach building and kit fixing systems is now developing a vandal resistant alternative to the standard tarpaulins presently in use.
Within an existing global market of 120,000 units a year, current predictions for the newmaterial showa healthy potential market opening of 7000 units annually.
Composite  materials  made  of  a  carbon  matrix reinforced by long carbon fibres can withstand high temperatures and are very resistant to wear.
These materials were originally developed for use in the extreme  conditions  found in the  nozzles  of the European Ariane  rocket motors.
The  developers realised that brakes made fromsuch composites were more reliable,  reduced vibration,  and caused less pollution than traditional  braking  systems  fitted to planes and road vehicles.
Messier-Bugatti, based in France, produceda novel carbonbraking systemcalled Sepcarb?for use on aircraft such as the Airbus and nowsupplies one-third of the world market for carbon composite brakes for commercial planes with more than 100 seats (over 145 airlines have nowchosen Sepcarb?carbon brakes for over 1600 aircraft).
Similar systems have also been employed on Formula 1 racing cars, road vehicles and passenger trains.
Another important safety feature - the airbag - has contributed a great deal to safer car travel in recent years, saving many lives and helping to prevent serious injury in collisions.
Today, the device is considered to be one of the most important safety devices since the seat belt was first introducedinthe 1960s.
Whenanairbag inflates, there is essentially a controlled explosion occurring inside your car!
The typical standard device is housed in the centre of the steering wheel along with the inflator.
Anigniter activates compressed gas capsules and these fill the bag withaninert gas whenanimpact of above a certain force is sensed.
The whole inflation process occurs within a split second and the bag is completely deployed in less than a second - enough time to restrain the occupant.
As most newcars employ suchsafety devices, the market forthe pyrotechnic charges is huge.
The Frenchcompany SNPE Propulsion is using its knowledge in the field of solid propulsion for ballistic missiles and space launchers  to design and develop the pyrotechnic charges used in airbag gas generators and seat-belt tighteners.
SNPE Propulsion estimates that its products are used in one out of every four safety devices fitted on new cars each year.
To help in the construction and maintenance of the International Space Station, the Canadian Space Agency has been coordinating the development of the ‘Special Purpose Dextrous Manipulator’ (SPDM) - a two-handed robot which is essentially an extension of the astronauts' own limbs.
Until recently, these augmented limbs lacked one critical feature - a sense of touch.
Without a sense of touch, machines can easily accidentally knock over or bump into other objects.
 In space, obviously, this can have drastic consequences.
 Although automated vision systems have been under intensive development for several years, tactile sensing technologies are rare and relatively primitive.
Recognising this challenge, Canadiancompany CanpolarEast developedKINOTEX - a novel sensorthat emulates human touch and can be applied like a skin or sleeve to cover entire robotic limbs.
Normally arranged in arrays, these sensors can detect and interpret contact at many points over the surface of the machie.
Because they use light to detect change, KINOTEX sensors can be very small and are immune to interference fromsources such as electromagnetic radiation.
They are also very responsive, sensing minute amounts of pressure and reacting extremely quickly to change.
Many industries are implementing KINOTEX products.
For example, automotive companies have acquired the rights to develop pressure-sensitive car seats that help increase  safety.
KINOTEX  sensors  are  also being  considered for incorporation into energy absorption bumpers for cars to determine the severity of crashes and collisions with pedestrians.
So, thanks to the sense of touch developed for robots in space, we may be able to travel much more safely in our vehicles!
Movements and vibrations inevitably occur when many different parts are brought togetherto builda carora spacecraft.
Inbothcases, it is necessary to findout how these components interact before they are assembled.
Special simulation software used by ESA to design the Columbus module for the International Space Station can assess the behaviour of complete systems even before they are built and sent into space, thus avoiding the prohibitively high costs otherwise involved in fixing problems afterwards.
The same software canhelpcar manufacturers to simulate vehicle dynamics andthendiagnose any vibration problems.
This software has already attractedthe attentionof the automotive industry andcompanies suchas BMW, DaimlerChrysler, Rover, Bosch and Iveco are now using it to develop virtual prototypes of entire cars and heavy goods vehicles.
The Prost Formula 1 racing teamwas using another type of technology, known as the SPADD (Smart Passive Damping Device).
This systemwas developed by the French company Artec Aerospace to protect satellites and space structures fromthe strong vibrations occurring during launch.
However, the SPADD system can also be used to reduce (dampen) vibrations ina racing car, so leading to improveddriversafety.
Incidentally, the same technology is also being applied to reduce the noise and mechanical shocks in concrete mixers!
When the Rosetta space probe, one of ESA's main science Cornerstone missions, is launched in 2003 to study cometWirtanen, it will use a clever piece of technology which will soon benefit engineering applications nearer home.
The device is an actuator for implementing fine movements developed by Cedrat Recherche, a spin-off company from the Polytechnic Institute of Grenoble, and is based on the piezoelectric effect.
This is a well-established phenomenon whereby a small voltage passing across a crystal such as quartz causes it to change shape (or vice versa - pressure on the crystal induces a voltage).
The distances moved are small but the forces produced are large.
The effect is exploited in many electromechanical devices such as quartz clocks and microphones, and is ideal for controlling movements fast and accurately and with little power.
Cedrat had already developed piezo actuators for the French Space Agency CNES, for micro-positioning and vibration damping of satellite optical systems.
Further applications followed, including optical shutters, piezoelectrically-controlled valves and non-magnetic rotating motors for sensitive instrumentation.
Cedrat's actuators employ a clever combination of synthetic piezoelectric materials and mechanical engineering to give a much greater range of movement than previous piezo devices.
 So it is not surprising that these amplified piezo actuators have found many non-space uses, for example in instrumentation such as microscopes, camera shutters and hospital MRI scanners.
The technology is increasingly penetrating more established fields of engineering.
The next generation of car engines already face enormous demands in terms of efficiency, power output and low emissions.
They will need to respond rapidly to changes indriving conditions, constantly optimising engine performance.
Microchips are already able to supply the real-time electronic commands needed for adaptive engine management, and newactuators are needed to translate these into the mechanical language of the engine.
Much attention has been given to the improvement of fuel injection systems where the electrical control of individual injectors can significantly affect engine performance.
Amplified piezo actuators with their combination of very fast response times, low voltage operation, high operating forces and precise control offer one very promising approachto the automotive injector of the future.
Withthis inmind, anautomotive injector designed by Cedrat Recherche and Fiat, and based on the amplified piezo actuator, has recently been patented.
So, a novel device used to control spacecraft will help build the next generation of greener, more efficient cars.
Nutation, from the Latin word to nod, usually describes the circular movements of a growing shoot or the wavy path followed by the Earth's axis as it travels around the Sun.
It is also the motion of a coin, spinning like a top, as it slows and falls.
Careful observation shows that as the coin slows it describes a circle on the table top.
Interestingly, the diameter of this circle is smaller than the diameter of the coin itself.
This means that for each nutation of the coin, the circumference of the circle traced on the table top is less than the circumference of the coin and the coin must therefore rotate.
Even closer observation reveals that although the point of contact between the coin and the table moves very quickly, the coin itself rotates quite slowly.
The visible effect is that of an apparent gearing between the two motions.
This is not an illusion, but a real and useful effect which can be accurately described mathematically.
Many everyday appliances rely upon small electric motors to operate - video recorders, car window winders and seat adjusters, tape drives andCD players all have them.
Oftenthe requiredshaft speedof the motoris quite lowbut, toprovide significant power, small machines work best at high speeds.
To reduce the speed of rotation and so gain an increase in output torque, or twisting power, a gearbox is needed - just as in a car.
If the difference between the speed of the motor and its load is great, conventional gears may need several stages of speed reduction.
This leads to power loss, noise and expense.
Unfortunately, large increases in output torque also cause large forces on the teeth of conventional gears, so larger teeth and better materials are needed.
Drawing upon the gearing effects of nutation, an Italian space company Stamsrl has created a new formof gearbox that overcomes these disadvantages.
The device, called SPACEGEAR, was developed for use in satellites and uses an arrangement in which one bevel gear nutates with another instead of rotating.
 The gear ratio is determined by the difference in the number of teeth of the fixed and moving gears and not, as with conventional gears, on the ratio of their circumferences.
By applying the principle of nutation twice, very high reduction ratios of up to 3000 can be achieved.
The design, which combines two pairs of gears, makes possible any ratio with the same simple configuration.
 Because the design ensures that at least two teeth are in contact at any one time, loadings are reduced and materials of lower strength may be used.
SPACEGEAR is particularly suited to electrically-driven automotive components where high reduction ratios are required but space is at a premium.
Using nutator technology, smaller, faster electric motors can provide the same level of mechanical power as their conventional counterparts.
At present, suchmechanisms andtheir electric motors typically cost from200 Euros fora small carto2000 Euros fora luxury car.
The Europeanautomotive industry produces about 15 million cars per year, offering a potential market of 4500 million Euros.
The company is exploring materials for mass manufacture - in metal or plastic - and is developing a computer programfor designing nutating-gear systems.
In another application a similar gear has been developed for bicycles.
Robots, like people, live in an imperfect world.
The notion that a robot, working alone in space, might be programmed with perfect knowledge of the environment in which it will carry out tasks with perfect accuracy is an impossible ideal.
Errors and variations will always exist in the robot and its world, which will affect both precision and performance.
The traditional solution of human intervention through tele-manipulation is not always an option.
As a result, ESA contracted the Belgian company Krypton Electronic Engineering to study ways of making robot control more precise.
The aimwas to support an in-orbit demonstration of ESA's Autonomous Interactivity Concept - a way of improving the competence of pre- programmed robots - and this required an accurate picture of the performance and responses of robotic manipulators under real-world operating conditions.
It was rapidly discovered that few commercial tools were available for calibrating robots.
Existing data onper formance - where it existed at all - was inadequate.
As a result, measurement systems and procedures all had to be developed which would identify the differences between perfect robots ina computer-generatedworldandreal robots working onthe shopfloor.
Once these errors were known and compensated for, it would be possible tobe confident that robotic tasks planned on Earth would be faithfully performed in space.
The system that evolved, Rodym, ensures thata robot consistently reaches its correct position during eachof its programmed actions.
To achieve this, a mathematical model is used to generate adjustments, compensating for the inevitable errors between the robot's actual and programmed positions.
The position data needed for these calculations must be very precise indeed and, once again, no commercial measurement solutions were available.
Rody mem ploys a multiple camera system, which can measure accurately the position and orientation of up to 256 infrared emitting diodes that are attached to, and move with, the robot.
Once these are exactly located in relation to the operating environment, error corrections can readily be made.
Using a similar camera /LED system, it is also possible to evaluate and correct the positioning of any tool that the robot is using.
Today, Krypton has become the market leader in the field of industrial robot calibration and testing.
The methods and tools first developed for space applications have become mature and most constructors of industrial robots now own at least one Krypton measurement system.
Robots that have been calibrated with Rodympositioning and compensation are capable of more accurate performances, leading to better quality, higher outputs and less down time - an advantage not lost on the car manufacturer BMW, which has decided to make Rodyma standard feature of its automobile production systems.
Space applications have long been a major driver in the development of fuel cells.
These electrochemical devices, which provide electricity from simple chemical reactions such as the combination of hydrogen (the fuel) and oxygen (from the air in terrestrial applications) to produce water, are ideal for powering spacecraft.
There are no moving parts, hydrogenis light, and the only waste production is water.
Based upon its efficiency, high power output and ability to operate for as long as the fuel is available, the fuel cell is also seen by many as the power source of the future for cars and other vehicles.
It is roughly twice as efficient as a conventional petrol engine, with virtually no harmful emissions, and can be operated with fuels made from renewable sources.
A car electrically powered by a fuel cell is quiet and easy to use.
A German aerospace company, Dornier, had made considerable progress in producing a compact, safe and reliable hydrogen fuel cell for use in spacecraft.
When Dornier became part of the automotive company DaimlerChrysler, its fuel cell technology became available for automotive applications and from then on progress was rapid.
In late 2000, two new fuel-cell vehicles were announced, the Mercedes-Benz A-class NECAR 5 and the Jeep Commander 2.
 Both vehicles are quiet and environmentally friendly, with fuel cell systems that occupy no more space than a conventional engine.
The two cars actually use methanol (a type of alcohol) as a fuel.
Otherwise hydrogen would have to be carried on board a vehicle as a liquid under high-pressure so there would be a danger of explosion.
An alternative is to use various hydrocarbon or hydrocarbon-derived fuels that can be first broken down into hydrogen and carbon dioxide using a reforming catalyst.
 Methanol, which can be handled and sold like petrol or diesel, is an excellent choice to feed reforming fuel cells designed for domestic cars.
Methanol is produced on a large scale from natural gas and oil and, ultimately, it will be available from renewable biomass.
Fuel cells are also being developed that use methanol directly as the fuel.
Such is the promise of fuel cells that DaimlerChrysler aims to invest over 1 billion Euros to develop the new drive system for mass production.
Many of us love the excitement of motor racing.
Even people who are not fans recognize that the sport contributes an enormous amounted development of new, efficient technologies.
Unfortunately, one aspect that the race teams don’t seem to worry about is the availability and cost of the fuel that powers their engines.
However, there is one motor race in the world that does contribute to the development of an environmentally friendly energy source - solar power.
The World Solar Challenge is the biggest race in the world for vehicles powered solely by the energy of the Sun.
 The race, held every two years,  crosses the Australian continent north to south from Darwin to Adelaide over 3010 kilometers, and the race teams have to deal with some of the most arduous conditions on Earth.
The first World Solar Challenge was held in 1987 in order to show the world the potential of solar power.
 The best solar cars perform extremely  impressively,  being  capable  of travelling 1000 kilometers fora cost of just over 2 Euros!
This is about 50 times more efficient than an average family car.
Some of the cars can also achieve speeds in excess of 160 kilometres an hour.
The competition participants vary from multinational companies to high schools and universities.
 In 2001, the regular contestants were joined by a team from The Netherlands, consisting of students from the Delft University of Technology and the University of Amsterdam.
One of the unique features of the Dutch entry was that their vehicle carried solar cells, provided by ESA, which were once employed on the Hubble Space Telescope.
The Dutch team also used new cells designed by the same people who produced the original cells for Hubble to power the car.
They are some of the best performing and most efficient solar arrays ever designed.
As well as providing solar cells, ESA supported the venture by providing technical expertise, anode of its former astronauts led the advisory team.
Thus equipment and technology used in space was transferred directly to a technically challenging venture and this collaboration paid off because Nuna, the Dutch solar car, won the World Solar Challenge on 21 November 2001.
Never before had a newcomer won the race at the first attempt and Nuna broke 4 world records in the process!
Over the past 35 years, the European space industry has gained considerable expertise in building, launching, controlling and communicating with satellites.
From this long experience of how to overcome the hazards and problems created by such a hostile environment, many valuable new technologies, products and procedures have been developed.
Today, this expertise is improving our daily lives by providing many innovative solutions for products and services on Earth.
Groundbreaking European space technologies are becoming increasingly more available for development and licensing to the non-space industry through the process of technology transfer.
The ESA Technology Transfer Programmed has already achieved over 120 successful transfers or spin-offs from space to non-space sectors
This success is reflected by the fact that since 1991 technology transfer has generated more than 20 million Euros in turnover for European space companies and 120 million Euros for the non-space industries involved.
Already 2,500 jobs and 12 new companies have been created, with 25 expected by 2003.
The ESA Technology Transfer Programmed is carried out by a network of technology brokers across Europe and Canada.
Their job is to identify technologies with potential for non-space applications on one side, and on the other to detect the non-space technology needs.
Subsequently, they market the technology and provide assistance in the transfer process.
There are a host of other technologies developed for or used in space which have also been spun-off to the car manufacturing industry.
Examples include: car windscreens being used as antennas to transmit data; transparent heating systems for windscreens; the use of GPS satellites to provide navigation maps and route directions; and micro-coating of metals for car headlamps.
Also special composite materials,plastic paneling, resins and carbon fibers – already applied to spacecraft – are now made available by the plastics industry for car bodies.
And it’s not only plastics.
The Audi car company is using silicon and manganese a luminous alloys for car parts, and there are special car bodywork electro- coatings with moly benumb diesel hide to reduce air friction at high speed.
Fabrics and pyrotechnic devices used in space are being used for airbags and safety belts in cars.
Finally, technologies first developed for rocket propulsion are also used in the automotive industry.
Examples include seals for fuel pumps, engine cooling tubes, shape memory alloys to optimize the  performance  of catalytic  converters,  and microfiber/ceramic insulation material for use in exhaust silencers.
So next time you get into your car, give a thought to what space technologies might have been transferred to it!
Global automobile manufacturers see India as a manufacturing hub for auto components due to the following reasons
Low-cost labour force and availability of raw material which makes India cost competitive
An established manufacturing base in India
Setting up of the operations of major international auto components including Delphi, Visteon, Bosch and Meritor in India
Setting up of International Purchasing Offices (IPOs) of automobile manufacturers and auto component manufacturers in India
Fine-quality components manufactured in India
India being a global hub for research and development (R&D), General Motors, DiamlerChrysler, Bosch, Suzuki, Johnson Controls, etc., have their research centres in India
In this Unit, you will learn about the various components and systems that make a complete automobile? —? the engine and its parts, the body and chassis, drive transmission and steering parts, suspension and brake parts, electrical parts and other systems that make running an automobile possible.
Chassis is a French term and was initially used to denote the frame or main structure of a vehicle.
The chassis contains all the major units necessary to propel the vehicle, guide its motion, stop it and allow it to run smoothly over uneven surfaces.
It is the main mounting for all the components including the body.
It is also known as the carrying unit.
A steel frame, which is a major part.
In case of a passenger car, the whole body is also an integral part of the chassis.
However, in commercial vehicles like trucks and buses, the body is not a part of the chassis. 
Therefore, a chassis is almost a complete vehicle except the body and other accessories, which are not involved in the movement of the vehicle.
Other major components include engine, transmission system, front and rear axle, steering system, suspension system, wheels, tires and brakes.
In case of integral or frameless construction, the body is an integral part of the chassis.
But, in case of the conventional chassis, the body or superstructure is made after receiving the chassis from the manufacturer.
The shape of the body depends upon the ultimate use for which the vehicle is meant.
The body of a car  is made of a sheet of metal or fibre glass, so that passengers can sit in it.
To make the journey comfortable, cushioned seats are provided.
The body is provided on all sides with glass panes fixed to protect the passengers from dust and rain.
The body of a truck has the driver’s compartment covered and the rest is kept open.
Such bodies are usually called load bodies.
In most of the cases, it is an open body, whereas for liquid material like water, milk and fuel products, a tank is mounted on the chassis.
The body is fixed to the chassis with the help of I- or U-bolts with rubber packing placed between the chassis and body cross members.
The body of a motor vehicle should fulfill certain requirements.
It should be light weight.
have minimum number of components.
have long fatigue life.
have uniformly distributed load.
have sufficient space for passengers and luggage.
have good access to the engine and suspension system.
have minimum vibrations when the vehicle is running.
have minimum resistance to air.
be cheap and easy in manufacturing.
have clear all-round vision through glass areas.
have an attractive shape and colour.
An engine is complex unit in which different components are assembled, and fuel is burned to produce power or energy.
the engine converts chemical energy (heat energy) into mechanical energy, which is then utilized for vehicular movement.
There are different processes of fuel combustion.
When the fuel is burned within the engine, it is called an Internal Combustion (IC) engine, and when it is burned externally and the produced steam is used for the mechanical movement, it is called an External Combustion (EC) engine.
Nowadays, automobile engines are quite economical due to the developments taking place in the field of internal combustion engine.
On the basis of the process of ignition, the automobile engines are classified into spark ignition engine (petrol or gas) and compression ignition engine (diesel).
In an IC engine, the reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into rotary motion of the crankshaft and the produced power is then transmitted to move the vehicle.
In case of a rotary engine or Wankel engine, the rotor rotates and completes the process of combustion and produces the power, which helps the vehicular movement.
The spark ignition engine can be differentiated from the compression ignition engine as per the following factors.
The type of fuel used.
The way the fuel enters in the combustion chamber.
The way in which fuel is ignited.
The spark ignition engine uses a highly volatile fuel, such as gasoline, which turns into vapor easily.
The fuel is mixed with air before it enters in the combustion chamber, and forms a combustible air-fuel mixture.
This mixture then enters the cylinder and gets compressed with the help of a piston.
An electric spark is produced by the ignition system which ignites the combustible air-fuel mixture.
The combustible gases burn and expand, which forces the piston downwards for generating power.
In the compression ignition engine or diesel engine, only fresh air enters the cylinder, which is compressed to a very high pressure and temperature, which could go up to 1000°F (538°C).
The diesel is then injected or sprayed into the engine combustion chamber.
This spray contains very fine and tiny particles of diesel in an atomized form.
The hot air or heat of compression ignites the fuel and generates the power stroke.
Cylinder: The cylinder or cylinder liner of an IC engine is fitted in the cylinder block, which is a single casted unit and is considered to be the main body of an engine.
The block has cylinder liners.
The piston reciprocates up and down from Top Dead Centre (TDC) to Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) to generate power.
The cylinder liner and the cylinder block have to withstand very high pressure (about 70 bar) and temperature (about 700°C) during power stroke.
The material used for the cylinder block must withstand such heat and also disperse it effectively.
The cylinder block is well-designed with water passages to remove the excess heat and separate oil passages are provided for the circulation of lubricating oil.
The top portion of the cylinder block is covered by the cylinder head.
The crankcase is an integral part of the cylinder block which houses the crankshaft and the lower portion is dipped in an oil pan.
Nowadays, cylinder liners are made of special alloy and internal portion is coated with material like titanium which provides mirror finish and can withstand the wear resistance.
The upper end of the cylinder liner has a flange which fits well in the cylinder block.
The exterior portion of the cylinder liner is exposed to water jacket for easy dispersion of heat.
Cylinder Head: The cylinder head is also single-casted unit and bolted to the top portion of the cylinder block.
The combustion chamber is a part of the cylinder head, where the combustion of gases takes place.
The water passages are provided to remove the heat from the cylinder head.
In latest engines, the cylinder head also houses the camshaft which has the inlet and exhaust valves with supportive valve mechanism.
This provision is made to fix spark plug in SI engines and nozzle in CI engines.
The lower portion of the cylinder head is well-machined to ensure there is no leakage of gases.
Cylinder head gasket is usually cast as one piece and bolted to the top of the cylinder (engine block).
Copper and asbestos gaskets are provided between the cylinder and cylinder?head to obtain a gas?tight joint.
The charge enters the combustion chamber through the inlet valve connected to the inlet manifold, and the exhaust gases are removed through the exhaust valves connected to the exhaust manifold.
Piston and Piston Rings: Piston is a cylindrical unit, used to compress the charge during compression stroke and to transmit the gas force to the connecting rod and then to the crankshaft during power stroke.
The pistons of IC engines are usually made of aluminium alloy, which has high thermal conductivity and is light in weight.
The material of piston must have the ability for higher heat transfer.
The piston moves up and down (from TDC to BDC) and assists in completing the engine cycle.
The piston rings are placed in the ring groove and provide sealing between the piston and the cylinder liner, thereby preventing the leakage of high pressure gases.
These are made of special grade cast iron, which retains its elastic property even at very high temperature.
The upper piston rings are called the compression rings and the lower piston rings are called the oiling or oil control rings.
Connecting Rod: It is usually manufactured by using drop-forged steel.
It is made in the shape of ‘I’ so as to reduce its weight and to withstand strength.
Its small end is connected to the piston with the help of gudgeon pin and the big end is connected to the crankpin with shell bearings.
It has a passage for the transfer of lubricating oil from the big end bearing to the small end bearing (gudgeon pin).
The major function of the connecting rod is to convert the reciprocating motion of piston to the rotary motion of the crankshaft.
Crank and Crankshaft: The crankshaft is called the backbone of an engine because it converts the reciprocating motion of piston into the rotary motion of the crankshaft.
The crankshaft is a single casted unit and is made of drop-forged steel main journals which are placed and supported in the crank case.
The main journal and connecting journals are machined to a smooth finish to reduce friction and shell bearings are used for smooth rotation of crankshaft.
Front end of the crankshaft will transmit drive to the camshaft and also to the timing gear, whereas the flywheel is bolted to the flange at rear end of the crankshaft.
Main journal of the crankshaft carries the oil passages to lubricate shell bearings.
In case of a single cylinder engine crank assembly  is used, two crank webs are connected with the crank pin, and crank webs shafts are press fitted in both.
At one side of the shaft magneto is fastened whereas clutch assembly is mounted to the other.
The crank assembly is balanced dynamically as well as statically for the smooth transmission of power.
Piston Pin or Gudgeon Pin.
This unit connects the piston and small end of the connecting rod and passes through the piston  Circlips are fitted into recesses in the piston to prevent the gudgeon from touching the cylinder wall
The needle bearing or bronze bushing is press fitted into the connecting rod, due to this the gudgeon pin provides bearing for the oscillating small end of the connecting rod.
Inlet Valve: The major role of the inlet valve is to submit fresh charge in to the cylinder during the suction stroke.
Opening and closing of the valve will control the admission of the charge into the petrol engine or air into diesel engine during suction stroke of an engine.
The valve operations will be as per the valve timings.
The inlet valve has a wider face or in latest engines two inlet valves are used to maintain volumetric efficiency of an engine.
Exhaust Valve: The exhaust valve removes out the burnt gases from the combustion chamber after power stroke.
The exhaust valve has to bare more heat resistance
Valve Spring: The valve spring plays an important role to close the valve and also provides air tight compartment to seal the combustible gases during power stroke and also maintain the self-centering movement of the valve.
Both ends of the vale spring are machined for smooth function and up and down movements of the valves.
Inlet Manifold: The fuel air mixture is carried from the carburetor to the cylinder through a separate pipe through inlet manifold in a carbureted engine.
Whereas in compression ignition engines (diesel), the air is sucked through the induction manifold.
In M.P.F.I the engine holds the throttle body on top of the manifold and the supply of air is monitored by the throttle body sensor.
Exhaust Manifold: It is a set of pipes and muffler, which is used to remove the exhaust gases from the exhaust ports.
Engines oxygen sensors and catalog convertors are used to reduce sound and air pollution, respectively .
Camshaft: The major function of the camshaft is to operate the intake and exhaust valves through the cam lobe, the gear drive transmits the power for the rotation of oil pump, therefore the oil pump sucks the oil from the oil sump and transits the same to the oil gallery.
The camshaft is driven by crankshaft at half the speed of the crankshaft.
"Cam,Lobeand	Tappet: The cam lobe of the camshaft is placed directly above the bucket tappet, such that the lobe comes around it and pushes down the bucket tappet and the valve, thus opening the valve."
 In an overhead camshaft with rocker arm, the cam lobe comes under the valve lifter, and causes the rocker arm to rock or turn the lobe and pushes down the valve steam and it moves down to open.
 When the cam lobe passes the valve lifter the valve spring retains back to the original length.
To close the valve the rocker arm turns back and the valve lifter is pushed down on the cam.
In case of double overhead camshaft engine, the double row valves are usually operated by the separate overhead camshaft.
Push Rod and Rocker Arm: The motion of the cam lobe pushes the valve lifter upwards
This movement pushes the push rod and the rocker turns the upward motion of the push rod to the downward movement of the valve stem resulting in opening of the valve.
Crank Case: The crank case is an integrated part of the cylinder block.
The casing is provided to hold the crankshaft.
The crankshaft is allowed to rotate freely and transmit the power to the flywheel 
Water Pump and Water Jacket: The function of water pump is to draw water from the radiator and supply it to the water passages provided in the cylinder block and cylinder head with certain pressure.
The circulation of coolant removes the excessive heat from an engine.
This helps in maintaining the engine temperature and also the life of an engine.
Radiator: The major function of the radiator is to radiate the heat from the coolants.
It has two tanks located at the top and bottom.
The upper tank is connected to the lower tank with the core through the passages for easy radiation of the heat.
The radiator also stores the coolant.
Flywheel: It is a wheel mounted on the crankshaft which stores the energy during the power stroke and transmits the energy to the transmission system, the clutch and then to the gear box.
Governor: It is run by drive from the crankshaft.
The function of the governor is to regulate the charge in case of petrol engine and amount of fuel in case of diesel engine to maintain the speed of the engine constant, when the load requirement varies.
The components described above are commonly used for all types of IC engine.
Here we are describing only a few components which are used in particular types of engines.
Carburettor: The major function of the carburetor is to supply carburised fuel as per speed and the engine load.
In petrol engines the carburettor is mounted on the induction pipe or on the induction manifold.
The quantity of fuel air mixture in appropriate ratio is controlled by the throttle valve and the movements of the throttle valve are connected to the accelerator.
Spark Plug: The function of the spark plug is to ignite the fuel air mixture after completion of the compression stroke in an engine.
It is generally placed in the combustion chamber of the cylinder head.
This is only used in petrol engine.
Fuel Injection Pump: In case of diesel engine the diesel oil from the fuel tank is sucked by the fuel feed pump.
The pump first sends the diesel oil to the fuel filter and then to the transfer pump.
The transfer pump increase the pressure of the fuel.
The high pressure of fuel is then sent to the distributor rotor through the metering valve and from rotor the fuel is sent to the injector.
In case of a multi point fuel injection system, the electric fuel pump is used and placed in the fuel tank.
The pump generates the injection pressure and sends it to the fuel filter, and then to the common rail at a pressure of 3 to 4 bar.
The common rail or fuel rail is connected to the fuel injector.
Fuel  Injector:  The  function  of  fuel  injector is to break the fuel into fine spray (atomised condition) as it enters the combustion chamber of diesel engine.
In case of an MPFI engine petrol is injected at the end of compression stroke as the fine spray of the fuel burns more efficiently in the combustion chamber giving better fuel efficiency with less air pollution.
As you know, our body requires fluids like water and also oil in the form of fats like ghee, butter, cooking oil for maintenance of our system.
Similarly, lubrication is required for maintenance of engine.
Lubrication system is one of the most important parts of an engine.
The engine cannot run smoothly for more than a few minutes without the lubricating oil.
Whenever two metallic surfaces move over each other under direct contact, dry or solid friction is produced.
This is due to the irregularities on the two surfaces interlocking each other.
The dry friction thus created produces a lot of heat and results in wear and tear of the metal surface.
The main objectives of lubrication are to reduce friction between moving parts to its minimum value so that power loss is minimised, andto reduce wear and tear of the moving parts as much as possible.
Apart from these objectives, lubrication also serves other important purposes, which may be called secondary.
To provide cooling effect: The lubricating oil takes heat from the hot moving parts during its circulation and delivers it to the surrounding air through the crank case.
To provide cushioning effect: The lubricating oil also serves as a good cushion against the shocks experienced by the engine.
For example, instant combustion of the fuel in the combustion chamber produces a sudden rise of pressure in the cylinder and the shock goes to the bearings through the piston, gudgeon pin and the connecting rod.
This shock is then absorbed by the layer of oil present in the main bearings.
To provide cleaning action: The lubricating oil serves another useful purpose of providing a cleaning action.
During its circulation, it carries away many impurities, such as carbon particles, etc.
To provide a sealing action: The lubricating oil also helps the piston rings in maintaining an effective seal against the high pressure gases in the cylinder thus preventing leakage towards the crank case.
Like our body requires air and water for cooling our system, similarly the engine of a vehicle also requires cooling.
The cooling system has three primary functions, which are as follows.
Remove excess heat from the engine.
Maintain a constant engine operating temperature.
ncrease the temperature of a cold engine as quickly as possible by maintaining the thermostat valve in a closed position which is fitted in the path of coolant circulation.
The cylinders of internal combustion engines require cooling because the engine cannot convert all the heat energy released by combustion into useful work.
Liquid cooling is employed in most of the IC engines, whether they are used in automobiles or elsewhere.
The water (coolant) is circulated around the cylinders to pick up heat and then dissipate it through a radiator.
As the temperature increases from 71 to 82 degrees centigrade, the thermostat valve opens and sends water to the radiator to radiate the heat.
When the temperature rises above 82 degrees, the thermostat switch operates the cooling fan to support the cooling process in radiator.
In petrol engines, the fuel and air mixture is supplied to the combustion chamber of an engine.
This mixture is atomized and then vaporized by the carburetor.
Then the mixture is ignited by the spark plug.
The fuels, such as petrol, benzoyl and alcohol are used in an SI engine.
Nowadays, fuel is injected in the flow of air at a certain temperature and pressure and the fuel vaporizes faster and the combustion process is better, with low emission.
It also shows better fuel efficiency.
In case of compression ignition engine (diesel) the fuel is sent through the fuel pump to the injector and the injector sprays the fuel at end of compression stroke.
The oil fuels which are used in CI engines do not vaporize easily.
Therefore, a separate injection system is used consisting of fuel injection pump (FIP) and injectors.
These injectors atomize the fuel and it is then sent for combustion.
Nowadays, in case of compression ignition engine the common rail direct injection system (CRDI) is used for better engine performance.
Fuel Tank: In most of the vehicles the fuel tank is located at the rear end of the vehicle.
The fuel tank is made of a metal sheet or plastic.
It is attached to the chassis.
The filler opening is closed with a cap.
The fuel line is attached to the fuel pump and also to the fuel gauge.
Fuel Line: The fuel line carries the fuel from the fuel tank to the carburettor or to the common rail system used in MPFI engines.
The line has to withstand the pressure and provide resistance for the corrosion.
The rigid line is placed safely in the chassis.
It is connected to the units like carburettor, through a flexible pipe.
Fuel Filter: The major role of the fuel filter is to send clean fuel to the engine.
This prevents blockages in the fuel system.
The filter contains a cartridge of filtering the element through which the fuel passes the filter traps any particles and prevents them from entering the fuel system.
The fuel filter is required to be replaced at regular intervals.
Air Cleaner: It is the main unit of the fuel system.
It supplies clean air to the engine.
The element of the air cleaner must be cleaned and replaced at regular intervals for maintaining a healthy life of the engine.
Fuel Injector: The solonide injector used in the M.P.F.I fuel system is operated electrically as per the variation in the supply of current with resistance.
The solonide winding induces current within it and controls the movements of the needle valve to inject fuel as per the variations in speed and the load.
The fuel system is controlled by the ECM
Pressure Regulator: It controls the amount of pressure that enters the injector.
The extra fuel is sent back to the fuel tank.
Transmission system is used in motor vehicles to supply the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels.
The transmission reduces the higher engine speed to the slower wheel speed, increasing torque in the process.
Transmissions are also used in pedal bicycles, fixed machines and where rotational speed and torque need to be adapted.
The transmission system consists of the following components.
Clutch assembly
Gear box assembly (Transmission case assembly)
Propeller shaft assembly
Clutch is a mechanism which enables the rotary motion of one shaft to be transmitted, when desired.
The axes of driving shaft and driven shaft are coincident.
To disconnect  the engine power from the gear box as required, under the following circumstances: to start the engine and warm it up;to engage first and second gear to start the vehicle from rest;to facilitate changing the gear as required; anddisconnect from the engine to stop the vehicle after application of brakes.
To allow the engine to take up load gradually without shock or jerk.
The clutch should meet the following requirements.
Torque transmission or the ability to transmit maximum torque of the engine.
Gradual engagement, i.e.to engage gradually and avoid sudden jerks.
Heat dissipation, i.e., ability to dissipate large amount of heat generated during the clutch operation due to friction.
Dynamic balancing, which means that the clutch should be dynamically balanced.
This is particularly required in the case of high-speed engine clutches.
Vibration damping, i.e., having a suitable mechanism to damp vibrations to eliminate noise produced during the power transmission.
Size of the clutch should be as small as possible so that it occupies minimum space.
Free pedal play, which helps the clutch to reduce effective load on the carbon thrust bearing and its wear.
Easy in operation and requiring as little exertion as possible on the part of the driver.
Light weight of the driven member of the clutch so that it does not continue to rotate for any length of time after the clutch has been disengaged.
The main parts of a clutch are divided into three groups.
Driving members: The driving members consist of a flywheel mounted on the engine crankshaft.
The flywheel is bolted to a cover which carries a pressure plate or driving disc, pressure springs and releasing levers.
Thus, the entire assembly of the flywheel and the cover rotate all the time.
The clutch housing and the cover provided with openings, dissipate the heat generated by friction during the clutch operation.
Driven members: The driven members consist of a disc or plate, called the clutch plate.
It is free to slide lengthwise on the splines of the clutch shaft (primary shaft).
It carries friction material on both of its surfaces.
When it is gripped between the flywheel and the pressure plate, it rotates the clutch shaft through the splines.
Operating members: The operating members consist of a foot pedal, linkage, release bearing, release levers and the springs.
Gear Box (Transmission Case) Assembly
We need different gear ratios in the gear box or transmission system to enable the vehicle to move at different speeds.
At the time of starting the vehicle, the maximum amount of torque is available on the flywheel, for which low gear ratio is selected for the movement of the vehicle.
As the engine speed increases, the amount of torque is reduced on the flywheel and it is required to select higher gear ratio.
To provide a means to vary the leverage or torque ratio between the engine and the road wheels as required.
The transmission also provides a neutral position so that the engine and the road wheels are disconnected even with the clutch in the engaged position.
It provides a means to reverse the car by selecting the reverse gear.
In this session, we shall discuss the axle and steering system, which transmits power to the wheel.
It plays a crucial role in the movement of a vehicle.
This is a shaft which transmits power from an engine to the wheels of a motor vehicle.
It is a hollow tubular shaft and consists of mainly three parts.
Shaft: It mainly bears torsional stress produced due to twisting.
It is usually made of tubular cross section.
Universal joints: One or two universal joints are used, depending on the type of rear axle drive used.
The universal joints help in the up and down movements of the rear axle when the vehicle is in running condition.
Slip joint: Depending on the type of drive, one slip joint may be there in the shaft.
This serves to adjust the length of the propeller shaft when demanded by the rear axle movements
Front axle carries the weight of the front portion of the automobile as well as facilitates steering and controls the rolling of wheels.
It also absorbs road shocks arising due to road surface variations.
In case of a commercial vehicle the front axles are generally dead axles.
The front axle is designed to transmit the weight of the automobile from the springs to the front wheels, turning right or left as required.
To prevent interference due to front engine location, and for providing greater stability and safety at high speeds by lowering the centre of gravity of the road vehicles, front axle includes the axle-beam, stub-axles with brake assemblies.
It is made of drop forged alloy steel consisting of 0.4% carbon steel and 1.3% nickel steel.
The axle is made of I-section at centre and of circular or elliptical section in the ends since it has to bear the bending stress and torsional stress.
In order to lower the chassis height a downward sweep is provided at the centre of the beam axle.
The main beam axle is connected to the stub axle with a king pin.
The front road wheels are mounted on the stub axle.
For smooth steering effects and maintaining proper control, the front axle of a car is supported with an independent suspension system, such as Mac-pherson.
The strut and coil spring allows the wheel to move up and down but does not allow to change the driving angle of axle shaft to transmit the drive smoothly.
It also allows the wheel to rotate freely.
This supports in steering the vehicle.
The rear axle bears the weight of the vehicle body and load with springs.
It enables to transmit the driving and breaking torque to the chassis frame and body of the vehicle.
It also bears the side thrust or pull due to any side load on the wheel.
It supports various parts like bevel pinion, bevel gear, cage of sun gear and star pinions, axle shafts, and different support bearings.
It is important to note that rear road wheels are mounted on the axle shaft and the differential mechanism enables the outer wheel to move faster than the inner wheel while taking a turn.
The steering mechanism permits the driver to control the car on a straight road and turn right or left as desired.
The steering mechanism includes a steering wheel,
In modern cars, the manually operated steering system is assisted by power and is called power steering.
The electric power drawn from the battery or hydraulic power is used.
It provides directional stability to the vehicle when moving in a straight (ahead) direction.
It provides perfect steering condition, i.e., perfect rolling motion of the wheels at all times.
It facilitates straight ahead recovery after completion of turn.
It controls the wear and tear of the tyre.
It is used to turn the vehicle as per the will of the driver.
It converts the rotary motion of the steering wheel into angular displacement of the front wheel.
It multiplies the effort of the driver to ease operation.
It absorbs road shocks and prevents them from reaching the driver.
Requirements of a Good Steering System.
It should be very accurate.
It should be easy to handle.
The effort required should be minimal.
It should provide directional stability.
The front wheels should roll without lateral skid while negotiating curves.
There should be proper proportion between the angles turned by the front wheels.
The type must have good elasticity so that on turns, these may follow an arc of greater radius than the stiff type.
The wheels should automatically come to the straight ahead position after negotiating the bend.
When going straight, the wheels must maintain the neutral position.
The angular oscillations of the wheels must be minimum.
The system must be irreversible to a certain degree so that minimum front wheel shocks are transmitted to the driver’s hands.
For perfect steering, it must always have an instantaneous centre about which all the wheels must rotate.
To achieve this the inner wheel has to turn more than the outer wheel.
Two types of mechanism are available, viz., the Davis and the Ackermann steering mechanism.
Out of these Ackermann type is more popularly used because of its simplicity.
It also lessens wear of tyre and lowers friction.
A steering linkage is the part of an automotive steering system that connects to the front wheels.
In a commercial vehicle a rigid axle type front suspension system is used.
It is made of polyurethane or hard plastic.
It consists of a circular rim with a hub at the centre.
The rim is slightly elliptical in cross section to maintain strength and provide hand grip.
The steering shaft is mated in the undulations cut on the inside of the steering wheel hub.
It is tubular in nature.
It provides switches for horn, light and wiper for easy and quick operation.
The collapsible columns are used for safety, which collapse upon impact and reduce the chances of injury to the driver.
It is made from drop forged alloy steel.
It connects the steering wheel to the steering gear box and transfers movements of the steering wheel to the steering gear, or to the pinion.
It is also called as pitmen arm.
It is made up of drop forged steel.
It connects the cross shaft with the draglink.
It connects the drop arm to the steering knuckle.
It is also made up of drop forged steel.
The tie rod ends are different parts of the steering linkage will be connected to the ball joints which provide angular motion to the steering system.
The steering gear converts the turning motion of the steering wheel into the to-and-fro motion of the link rod of the steering linkage.
It also provides the necessary leverage so that the driver is able to steer the vehicle without fatigue.
Suspension is the term given to the system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages that connects a vehicle to its wheels.
The suspension system serves a dual purpose, contributing to the vehicle’s road holding or handling and braking for safety and driving comfort, and keeping the vehicle occupants comfortable and reasonably well isolated from road noise, bumps and vibrations, etc.
The main functions of a suspension system are as follows:
To safeguard the occupants against road shocks and provide riding comfort.
To minimise the effects of stresses due to road shocks on the mechanism of the motor vehicle and provide a cushioning effect.
To keep the body perfectly in level while travelling over rough uneven ground, i.e., the up and down movement of the wheels should be relative to the body.
To isolate the structure of the vehicle from shock loading and vibration due to irregularities of the road surface without impairing its stability.
To provide the requisite height to the body structure as well as to bear the torque and braking reactions.
The components of a suspension system can be categorised as follows.
Mechanical Suspension: Leaf springs, Coil springs, Rubber springs,Torsion bars.
Hydraulic Suspension: Hydraulic shock absorber and Telescopic fork absorber
Compressed air is used in an air suspension system.
Leaf Spring: A leaf spring is a component of a vehicles’ suspension system.
Leaf springs are curved, and the curvature helps the spring absorb impact.
Coil Spring: Coil springs are commonly called compression springs, torsion springs or helical springs.
They store energy and release it to absorb shock or maintain a force between two contacting surfaces.
Mostly coil springs or helical springs are used in engine starter and hinges.
Rubber Spring: A rubber string stores more energy per unit mass than any other type of spring material.
The rubber spring is installed between the frame and the top link of the suspension system.
When the spring is connected to a point near the link pivot, deflection of the spring reduces to a minimum, without affecting the total wheel movement.
The energy released from the rubber spring after deflection is considerably less than that imparted to it.
Torsion Bars: Torsion bars are of two types?— helical or spiral.
These bars are used in automobile vehicles for transmitting torque.
Hydraulic suspension combines rubber springs with a damper system, linking the front and rear wheel on the same side of the car.
As the front wheel rises over a bump, some of the fluid from its suspension unit (known as a displacer unit) flows to the rear ?wheel unit and raises it, so tending to keep the car level.
In each of the displacer units, the fluid passes through a two-way valve, which provides the damping effect.
Once the rear wheel has passed over the bump, the fluid returns to the front displacer unit and the original level is restored.
Hydraulic Shock Absorber: It is a mechanical device designed to absorb shock impulses.
This device is also used for checking or damping out the suspension spring to a comfort level.
Telescopic Fork Absorber: A telescopic fork is a form of motorcycle front suspension whose use is so common that it is virtually universal.
The telescopic fork uses fork tubes and sliders which contain springs and dampers.
In this suspension, compressed air is used as a spring.
This suspension system is operated with air and controlled by a microprocessor.
It helps in maintaining self?driving conditions and supports the weight of the vehicle.
The wheel is an important component of a vehicle.
Wheel of a four-wheeler vehicle is mounted on a hub and consists of parts like rim, type and tube.
The wheels not only support the weight of the vehicle, but also protect it from road shocks.
All the four wheels must resist the braking stresses and withstand side thrust.
A wheel should be light and easily removable.
Functions of the wheel.
To withstand the weight of the vehicle.
To absorb road shocks.
To grip the road surface.
To balance dynamically (i.e., when the vehicle is in motion) and statically (i.e., when the vehicle is at rest).
The rimis the ‘outer edge of a wheel, holding the tyre’.
It makes up the outer circular design of the wheel on which the inside edge of the type is mounted on vehicles, such as automobiles.
the rim is a large hoop attached to the outer ends of the spokes of the wheel that holds the type and the tube.
Disc wheel Rim: A wheel is generally composed of rim and disc.
Rim is an outer partof the wheel and holds the tyre.
Disc is a part of wheel which connects the rim and the axle hub.
Wire Spoke Wheel Rim (used in motorcycle, bicycle): Wire spoke wheel rim is where the outside part of the wheel (rim) and axle installed part are connected by many numbers of wires called spokes.
Spilt Wheel Rim (used in scooter): Spilt wheel rim is used in a multi?piece wheel.
This wheel rim holds the tyre with a locking ring.
A split wheel rim cannot be used normally in all types of vehicle.
Heavy Vehicle Wheel Rim (available in three piece and four piece including locking ring): Heavy vehicle wheel rim have a three and four?piece locking ring.
This type of wheel rim is used in heavy vehicles wheel like truck, buses container, etc., because it has a longer life.
The type is mounted on the wheel rim.
It carries the vehicle load and provides a cushioning effect.
It must produce minimum noise, while the wheel turns on the road.
It resists the tendency for the vehicle to oversteer.
It should have good grip while accelerating and braking the vehicle on both dry and wet roads.
A type must have the following properties.
Non-skidding: The type must have grip to avoid skidding or slipping on the road surface.
Uniform wear: The type must get worn uniformly over its outer circumference.
Load carrying: The type is required to carry the vehicle load.
Cushioning: The type needs to absorb the vibrations due to the different road surfaces and their impact, and thus, provide cushioning effect to the vehicle.
Power consumption: While rolling on the road, the type should consume little power created by the engine.
Noise: The type should create minimum noise while running on the road.
Balancing: ???The type should be balanced dynamically as well as statically, i.e., maintain balance at both times? —? when the vehicle is in motion as well as at rest.
To carry the load of the vehicle.
To absorb minor road shocks.
To reduce vibration to some extent.
To transmit the power from the engine through gear box, propeller shaft and rear axle to the ground with which the vehicle moves.
The treads made on the types grip the road for better traction.
Solid type: It is used in children’s cycle and is filled with solid material, like rubber, which makes it sturdy.
Tube type: It consists of a tube between the rim and the type, in which air is filled.
It is used in most of the vehicles seen on road.
Tubeless type: Nowadays, with the advancements in technology, tubeless types are replacing the tube types.
Tubeless types are mainly used in modern cars.
The benefits of tubeless types include slow leakage of air during punctures, better balancing of wheels, low cost and ease of puncture repairing.
Brakes are one of the most important control components of a vehicle.
They are required to stop the vehicle within the smallest possible distance and this is done by converting the kinetic energy of the wheels into the heat energy which is dissipated into the atmosphere.
To stop the vehicle in the shortest possible distance and time.
To control the vehicle speed while moving on plain roads and hills.
To work equally well on fair and bad roads.
To ensure that the pedal effort applied by the driver is not much, thereby reducing the inconvenience for the driver.
To work efficiently in all weathers.
It should have very few wearing parts.
It should require little maintenance.
Brake, when applied should not disturb the steering geometry.
There should be minimum sound when brake is applied.
Foot Brake: Foot brake is one of the most common brake systems operated by the foot pedal.
When pressure is applied to the foot pedal, the vehicle stops.
Pedal force applied by the driver is further multiplied and sent to the braking drum or disc either by mechanical linkages or by hydraulic pressure which in turn causes braking.
It is also known as a service brake.
Hand Brake: Hand brakes are Spring Cam usually used for stable parking Brake of the vehicle either a on flat lining road or slope.
They are also called parking brakes.
Hand brakes are connected to the brake mechanism directly and the other end is operated by the driver.
This type of brake is also known as emergency brake as it is independent of the main service brake.
Dru Brakes or Internal Expanding Brakes: Drum
This type of brake is fitted in automobile
These brakes have a two
Shoes are fitted in the drum.
The friction between the shoes and the drum produces the braking torque and reduces the speed of the drum so that the Disc Brake vehicle stops.
Disc Brake or External Contracting Brakes: It is the type of braking system in which instead of a drum assembly a disc rotor is attached to the hub of the wheel in such a fashion that it rotates with the wheel.
This disc rotor is clamped in between the caliper which is rigidly fixed with the knuckle or upright of the vehicle.
When brakes are applied the actuation mechanism contracts the attached brake shoes which in turn make the frictional contact with the rotating disc rotor and cause the stopping of a vehicle.
An external contracting brake is used for only parking purpose as well as used to operate in flour mills, various types of electrical components, etc.
Mechanical Brake: This brake system has an inbuilt mechanical device for absorbing energy from a moving system.
Mechanical brake is a cable pull system, which consists of rim?like brakes just arranged in a different way.
Power Brake: Power brake system is a combination of the mechanical components to multiply the force applied to the brake pedal by the driver to stop the vehicle.
In a power brake system we mainly use the vacuum booster and master cylinder, brake calipers, drum brake, etc.
These braking systems are designed to reduce the effort required to depress the brake pedal when stopping a vehicle.
Vacuum Brake: It is the conventional type of braking system in which vacuum inside the brake lines causes brake pads to move, which in turn finally stop or deaccelerate the vehicle.
This type of brake is mainly used in railways in place of air brakes.
This brake can remove the kinetic energy and convert it into a form of heat.
The conversion is usually done by applying a contact material to the rotating wheel attached to the axles.
Vacuum brakes are cheaper than air brakes but are less safe than air brakes.
Air Brake: Air brake system is a very advanced braking system.
It is generally used in very heavy vehicles like buses and trucks.
It is the type of braking system in which the atmospheric air through compressors and valves is used to transmit brake pedal force from brake pedal to the final drum or disc rotor.
Air brakes generate higher brake force than hydraulic brake which is the need of the heavy vehicle.
High?end cars these days are using air brake systems due to its effectiveness and fail proof ability.
Hydraulic Brakes: A hydraulic braking system transmits brake-pedal force to the wheel brakes through pressurised fluid, converting the fluid pressure into useful work of braking at the wheels.
The brake pedal relays the driver’s foot effort to the master-cylinder piston, which compresses the brake fluid.
This fluid pressure is equally transmitted throughout the fluid to the front disc-caliper pistons and to the rear wheel-cylinder pistons.
The pressure on a liquid is called hydraulic pressure.
The brakes which are operated by means of hydraulic pressure are called hydraulic brakes.
Anti?lock Braking System: Anti?lock Braking System prevents the wheels from locking or skidding.
The anti-lock braking (ABS) system is a component that ensures passenger safety by stopping the vehicle in adverse conditions, like stopping very quickly or if the road is slippery.
To simplify it, the ABS prevents the wheels of the vehicle from locking up and causing you to skid out of control.
Electric Brake: It is
Electric brakes use electrical motors which are the main source of power in electric vehicles.
Electric brakes or secondary shoe are similar to the drum brakes in an automobile.
Electric brakes are actuated by an electromagnet.
Nowadays, all the automobiles run with the help of electrical and electronic system, and therefore, it plays an important part in the functioning of an automobile.
The electrical and electronic systems consist of the following.
Starting system: The starting motor is driven by means of the current taken from the battery.
Ignition system: The function of the ignition system is to produce a spark in the engine combustion chamber at the end of the compression stroke.
Generating or charging system: The function of the charging system in an automobile is to generate, regulate and supply the electrical energy for charging the battery.
Lighting system: It consists of various types of lighting used during the vehicle running, such as head light, tail light, fog light, brake light, reversing light, left and right indicators, parking light, cabin light, panel board lights, etc.
Connections for other accessories.
During summer, an automobile requires considerable amount of refrigerating capacity to maintain cool and comfortable conditions in the sitting space.
Similarly, when moving in a cold day in winter, the same vehicle would require considerable heating capacity to keep it comfortably warm for passengers.
Modern-day automobiles have an air conditioning to maintain suitably controlled temperature and humidity conditions inside the vehicle.
In automobiles, an air conditioner is a refrigeration Machine which requires electrical energy drawn from the battery system.
The battery is charged by energy of the engine.
For heating purposes, the warm water from the engine cooling system is used.
The heat required to warm the automobile is generally provided by circulating warm water through a heating coil.
Besides controlling the temperature levels, the air conditioner also cleans the air.
During summer, the humidity of the air inside the vehicle is reduced with air conditioner in operation, which makes the sitting area comfortable.
Car air conditioner comes inbuilt in air conditioned (AC) car models.
However, these can also be fitted at a later stage in a non-AC model of the car.
Compressor: A compressor is unit driven by the engine.
It has a low-pressure side port which is connected to the evaporator and a high pressure side port which is connected to the condenser using rubber hoses.
The compressor is the main mechanical part of the system.
In hybrid engines the compressor is electrically powered.
A small electric motor is fitted inside the compressor which pressurises the refrigerant.
These compressors have a pair of large gauge wires which form the compressor controller.
In latest cars, where the climetrons are used the electric power supply is controlled by ECU as per the temperature settings.
Clutch: The compressor is always fixed with a clutch.
The major function of the clutch is to transmit the power smoothly to the compressor when the system is operated.
Condenser: The major function of this device will be to change the high-pressure refrigerant vapour to a liquid.
The condenser is mounted in front of the engine’s radiator, and it looks similar to a radiator.
The condenser is a cooling device in which the vapour is condensed to a liquid because of the high pressure that is driving it in, and this generates a great deal of heat.
The heat is then in turn removed from the condenser by air flowing through the condenser on the outside.
Receiver-drier: The main function of this device is to filter refrigerant.
The liquid refrigerant moves to the receiver-drier.
This is a small reservoir vessel for the liquid refrigerant, which removes any moisture that may have leaked into the refrigerant and also stores excess quantity of refrigerant.
Expansion Valve: The pressurised refrigerant flows from the receiver-drier to the expansion valve.
The expansion valve is a controlling device which controlsthe varying load when there are pressure changes in the evaporator, as it may increase or decrease.
The valve maintains a constant pressure throughout the varying load on the evaporator controlling the quantity of refrigerant flowing into the evaporator.
Evaporator: It is the main component of a refrigeration system and is also called the cooling coil.
It has tubes and fins or freezing coil.
It is usually placed inside the passenger compartment above the footwell.
As the cold low-pressure refrigerant is passed into the evaporator, it vapourises and absorbs heat from the air in the passenger compartment.
The blower fan inside the passenger compartment pushes air over the outside of the evaporator, so cold air is circulated inside the car.
On the ‘air-side’ of the evaporator, the moisture in the air is reduced, and the ‘condensate’ is collected.
Throttling Device: It is a part of refrigeration system and air conditioning system.
When refrigerant comes out from the condenser at a medium temperature and high pressure, it enters the throttling valve.
In the throttling valve, the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant are decreased suddenly and the cooling effect is provided to the evaporator.
In a car’s air conditioning system, the refrigerant vapour from the evaporator is compressed to high pressure by the compressor.
The compressor is driven by the engine through a belt drive.
In a hybrid car, the compressor is driven by the motor and the power is used from the battery.
The compressor is connected by an electromagnetic clutch which serves, engages and disengages the compressor as required.
A variable displacement A/C compressor is sometimes used to match a compressor capacity to varying cooling requirement.
The refrigerant pressure and temperature increases in the compressor and converts it into the vapour form and then to the condensed form.
In the condenser the refrigerant liberates heat and converts into the liquid form.
Sometimes the air is not sufficient and therefore, an extra engine or electric driven fan is used to cool the refrigerant.
This cooled but high pressure refrigerant is passed through the dehydrator to extract any moisture.
Dry refrigerant liquid is then made to pass through expansion valve mounted at the inlet side of the evaporator.
The expansion valve allows the refrigerant liquid to expand to low pressure in the evaporator.
The process of expansion to low pressure makes the refrigerant evaporate and thereby cool the evaporator.
A sensing device, called temperature tube signals the diaphragm in the expansion valve to change the size depending upon the refrigerant temperature at the evaporator outlet, thus achieving automatic temperature control
There are different safety and security systems for automobiles available in the market and some of which are fitted by the manufacturer.
Some of the active and passive security systems are mentioned as follows.
Safety glass is used in all windows and doors of automotive.
The safety glass used in today’s vehicles is of two types?—?laminated and tempered.
These are considered as safety glass because of their varying strength.
Laminated plate glass is used to make windshields.
It consists of two thin sheets of glass with a thin layer of clear plastic between them.
Some glass manufacturers increase the thickness of the plastic material for better strength.
When this type of glass breaks, the plastic material tends to hold the shattered glass in place and thus, prevents it from causing injury.
Tempered glass is used for side and rear window glass but rarely for windshields.
It is a single piece of heat-treated glass and has more resistance to impact than the regular glass of the same thickness.
Thus, it has greater strength compared to a laminated plate glass.
A seat belt is also called a safety belt.
It is a harness designed to protect the occupant of a vehicle from harmful movement, during a collision or when the vehicle stops suddenly.
A seat belt reduces the likelihood and severity of injury in a traffic collision.
It prevents the vehicle occupant from hitting hard against the interior elements of the vehicle or other passengers, and keeps the occupants positioned in place for maximum benefit from the airbag.
The passenger must fasten the seat belt for crash protection.
However, in case of a assive safety system, such as the inflation of air bags at the time of an accident, is automatic.
No action is required of the occupant to make functional.
Nowadays, seat belts are also provided for ear seat occupants.
An airbag is one of the passive safety systems for the occupants of a four wheeler.
The electrical system of airbags includes impact sensors and an electronic control module.
In case of an accident, the sensor detects the impact and the airbag opens to save the driver and bags other occupants.
Modern bumpers are designed to absorb the energy of a low-speed impact, minimizing the shock directed to the frame and to the occupants of the vehicle.
Most energy absorbers are mounted between the bumper face bar or bumper reinforcement bar and the frame.
There are three basic types of security devices available — locking devices, disabling devices and alarm systems.
In automobile vehicle, an anti-theft system or device is installed to prevent theft of a vehicle.
Many car security devices are available in the market.
These are mechanical devices and ignition cut off devices, intelligent computerized anti-theft devices, satellite tracking system, engine control module, etc.
Vehicle owners may select as per risk and install it in their vehicles.
Prior to purchasing, the customers should check that these theft devices are duly approved from the Automobile Research Association of India (ARAI).
Important features of these devices are explained below.
Alarm: In the case of vehicle tampering, audible warning sounds emerge
Keyless Lock Device: To use the vehicle, electronic coding device is required
Electronic Immobilizers: These built-in transponders send signals to the ignition and fuel pump system.
The vehicle remains in stationary or inoperable state if the ignition starters do not get correct signals.
Steering Wheel Lock: This device is fitted in the steering of the vehicle and it locks it in one place so that no one can drive it without removing the lock.
Vehicle Tracking: Even if a thief steals a vehicle, the tracking technologies can help trace it.
Tracking devices offer real-time location of the stolen vehicle with the help of the global positioning system (GPS).
Congestion: a serious and worsening problem.
Traffic congestion has been increasing in much of the world, developed or not, and everything indicates that it will continue to get worse, representing an undoubted menace to the quality of urban life.
Its main expression is a progressive reduction in traffic speeds, resulting in increases in journey times, fuel consumption, other operating costs and environmental pollution, as compared with an uninterrupted traffic flow.
Congestion is mainly due to the intensive use of automobiles, whose ownership has spread massively in Latin America in recent decades.
Private cars have advantages in terms of facilitating personal mobility, and they give a sensation of security and even of heightened status, especially in developing countries.
They are not an efficient means of passenger transport, however, since on average at rush hours each occupant of a private car causes about 11 times as much congestion as a passenger on a bus.
The situation is further aggravated in the region by problems of road design and maintenance in the cities, a style of driving which shows little respect for other road users, faulty information on traffic conditions, and unsuitable management by the responsible authorities, which are often split up among a host of different bodies.
The cost of congestion is extremely high.
According to conservative calculations, for example, increasing the average speed of private car journeys by 1 km/hr and that of public transport by 0.
5 km/hr would give a reduction in journey times and operating costs worth the equivalent of 0.1% of the gross domestic product (GDP) (Thomson, 2000b).
The harmful effects of congestion are suffered directly by the vehicles that are trying to circulate.
They are not only suffered by motorists, however, but also by users of public transport –generally lower-income persons–who not only take longer to travel from one place to another but also have to pay higher fares on account of congestion.
All city-dwellers are also adversely affected, in terms of a deterioration in their quality of life through such factors as greater air and noise pollution and the negative long-term impact on the healthiness and sustainability of their cities, all of which makes it vitally necessary to keep congestion under control.
Make a start with measures affecting supply
The most logical approach is to tackle congestion through measures affecting the supply of transport, i.e., the availability and quality of the transport infrastructure, vehicles and their management, since this represents an increase in the capacity for travel.
There are many shortcomings in the current urban road systems which need to be put right: it is necessary to improve the design of intersections, mark roads properly and provide them with suitable signs, and correct the operating cycles of traffic lights, for example.
Another possible measure would be to make the traffic flow in the main avenues reversible at rush hours.
These measures can relieve congestion considerably and do not usually cost much, the main requirement being a knowledge of traffic engineering.
The construction of new roads or the widening of existing ones should not be ruled out, when appropriate and feasible within the context of a harmonious form of urban development which provides for adequate spaces for pedestrians and preserves the architectural heritage.
It should be borne in mind, however, that building more and more roads, under- and overpasses and urban expressways may be counter-productive in the medium and long term and may actually make congestion even worse, as we have unfortunately seen in the cases of some cities which adopted this strategy.
Big savings may be obtained through a system of traffic lights run from a central computer.
The rather high cost of this system in the view of many municipalities might make it advisable to set about this programme initially in several stages and only in certain sectors of the city, beginning with the progressive replacement of obsolete traffic lights by newer ones suited to the necessary technology.
The application of this system in areas of heavy traffic would show off its virtues and obtain citizen support for its wider use.
Another very real need is to organize a public transport system which provides effective service.
Substantial benefits are provided, not only for buses but also for private cars, by segregated lanes for public transport.
It may also be necessary to reorganize the bus lines into trunk and feeder lines, to give them certain preferential traffic rights, and to improve the quality of the buses used and the business capacity of their operators.
Buses of a higher standard than those generally in service may also have a useful role to play, especially if their operating timetables and frequencies allow them to offer a viable alternative to private car users.
A significant contribution can be made by transport systems similar to above-ground subway lines, organized on the basis of buses running in their own segregated lanes, with regular journey frequencies, centralized control, boarding and alighting of passengers only at designated stations, and a requirement that passengers must purchase their tickets before boarding the bus.
Although installing these systems is a complex matter and the construction of the necessary infrastructure will assuredly need the contribution of public resources, the excellent results obtained in Curitiba, the Quito trolleybus system and the Transmilenio public transport system in Bogot? fully justify this solution, which costs only a fraction of the construction of an underground subway system.
It is important that public transport should be improved in order to provide a rapid service of decent standard and thus maintain the present proportion of journeys made by this means.
In developing countries, over half of all journeys –and as much as 80% in some cities—are made by public transport.
If well designed and executed, measures affecting supply offer an interesting potential for tackling congestion.
Even so, it is necessary to incorporate other measures, especially respecting demand, to be able to solve the imbalances in infrastructure use and aid in achieving an acceptable balance for the community as a whole.
Measures aimed at demand also have a role to play
The aim of these measures is to persuade a substantial number of private car users travelling at rush hours or in areas of heavy traffic to use higher-density forms of transport, use non-motorized means of transport, or change the times at which they travel.
Some measures may involve the application of regulations and restrictions.
Others may provide economic rewards or disincentives for adopting forms of conduct that reduce congestion.
Both types of measures need to be considered for a better overall result, since economic measures may not be fully effective, while those involving regulations may be vulnerable if the controls are weak.
Substantial results can be achieved through the rationalization of parking spaces, since their availability and cost condition access by private car users.
Permanent or daytime prohibition of parking on the main streets, charges for parking on other streets, the regulation of paid parking in private parking lots and free parking offered by institutions and firms to their workers or to the public, economic incentives for not going to work by car, and intermediate parking lots for leaving cars and continuing the journey in public transport are potentially useful measures if applied in the right places and the right way.
Some of them may also generate income for the municipalities.
Staggering the starting hours of activities relieves congestion somewhat, as it spreads the morning rush hour over a longer period, while restrictions on vehicle use can take a substantial part of the total number of vehicles out of circulation.
The application of such restrictions only in the most congested sectors or times, as for example in central areas during the morning and evening rush hours, may have more lasting effects than their more general application, since it will give less incentive to buy extra cars to get round the restrictions.
Another form of restriction is to charge differential license fees depending on whether or not the vehicle can be used every day of the week.
Road use tariffs, which have been proposed by many academics and urban transport officials because they represent an attractive concept for making drivers pay for the costs they cause to society, are the measures which have met with the strongest resistance, especially from private car owners.
These measures seem to get results, at least in the short term, but they are questioned from every imaginable angle.
They are unacceptable for users, since they require them to pay for moving about in conditions of congestion; there are doubts about how to apply them; there are objections about their effects on areas immediately next to those subject to tariffs; they are accused of being inequitable with regard to persons with fewer resources; it is feared that economic activities in the areas subject to tariffs will be adversely affected; there are doubts about their long-term effects on town planning, because they are an incentive for cities to expand unless there are severe controls on land use; and last but not least, it is claimed that their application would be theoretically inconsistent unless other related prices, such as those of green spaces, are also made subject to the recovery of their marginal cost.
It would therefore appear that the likelihood of their application is limited, unless some city (other than Singapore, which has extremely special conditions) manages to put them into effect successfully.
They may perhaps be tried out first in developed countries, if the congestion there reaches intolerable levels, no other effective means are seen to exist, and the theoretical and practical doubts that still affect them can be successfully solved.
If carried out permanently ever since childhood, education in proper road use can help to reduce congestion by teaching the population not to drive in an undisciplined manner or fail to show due respect to other road users, whether pedestrians or other drivers.
Likewise, pedestrians must also be made to observe traffic rules and cross the street only at suitable places and moments.
Measures affecting demand must be carefully analysed in order to avoid unwanted ill-effects.
Over-restrictive regulations can alienate firms and residents and depress some areas of cities.
How should the problem be tackled?
The rapidity with which congestion can reach acute levels in big cities makes it essential for the authorities to take the right approach when seeking to adapt urban transport systems in this respect, both in the case of public transport and in that of private car use in problem areas or times.
The first concern should be to relieve the effects of congestion on those who have little or no responsibility for causing it, by:
Promoting or recovering the road system’s quality of a public good, by facilitating the free circulation of those who do not contribute to congestion, or only do so to a negligible extent.
This mostly means providing public transport with clear, unimpeded routes and giving it some degree of priority over other road users, including segregated bus lanes when appropriate in order that it should not be held up by congestion; Keeping the emission of pollutants under control; andLimiting congestion in order to prevent it from endangering the quality of life and sustainability of cities.
Reducing congestion also has the result of reducing the emission of pollutants that contaminate the air, since in most cities in the world the transport system is one of the main culprits for atmospheric pollution.
An integrated strategy for combating these two problems can therefore result in more efficient solutions than the application of isolated measures to combat each of them separately.
Combating congestion entails various amounts of costs.
Some must be defrayed by the public bodies that are applying the measures; others affect the population in general, while those related with actions regarding demand affect motorists in particular.
Everything indicates that an effort should be made to apply a set of actions designed to affect both the supply of transport and the demand for it, in order to rationalize public road use.
It must be recognized that a style of personal mobility based essentially on the use of private cars is not sustainable in the long term, although this does not necessarily mean that it should be prohibited.
Private cars have many uses which make urban life easier, such as facilitating social life, shopping or travelling to distant destinations.
Using them every day to go to one’s place of work or study in areas of heavy traffic is a different matter, however.
It is therefore necessary to design policies and measures of a multi-disciplinary nature which will make it possible to keep congestion under control, since it is not reasonable to think of eliminating it altogether.
In the case of cities in developing regions, while local conditions must always be taken into account, it would seem advisable to give priority to the following measures:
Rectification of intersections.
Improvement of road markings and signs.
Rationalization of on-street parking.
Staggering of working hours.
Synchronization of traffic lights.
Reversibility of traffic flow direction in some main avenues.
Establishment of segregated bus lanes, together with the restructuring of the system of bus routes.
At the same time, it is necessary to establish a long-term strategic vision of how the city should develop which will make it possible to harmonize the needs of mobility, growth and competitiveness, which are so necessary in the world of today, with the sustainability of cities and the improvement of their quality of life.
This is a complex task, calling for high professional and leadership qualities on the part of the town planning and transport authorities, and it could perhaps be made easier by the establishment of a single unified transport authority in metropolitan areas.
Keeping congestion under control is an ongoing, never-ending task.
Tools exist for this purpose, some of them more effective and some of them more readily accepted than others, but a set of measures which has the support of the local population is needed in order not to run the risk of succumbing in the face of the modern scourge of traffic congestion.
Congestion: an escalating negative phenomenon.
In recent years, and especially since the early 1990s, the increase in road traffic and in the demand for transport have caused serious congestion, delays, accidents and environmental problems, above all in large cities.
Traffic congestion has become a veritable scourge which plagues industrialized countries and developing nations alike.
It affects both motorists and users of public transport, and as well as reducing economic efficiency it also has other negative effects on society.
The disturbing thing is that this expression of modern times has been intensifying, without any sign of having a limit, thus becoming a nightmare that threatens the quality of urban life.
The last few decades have seen a rapid escalation in the number of motor vehicles in developing countries, as a result of various factors, such as the increase in the purchasing power of the middle-income socioeconomic classes, the greater availability of credit, the relative reduction in prices and the greater supply of used vehicles.
The growing availability of automobiles has allowed greater individual mobility, which, together with population growth in cities, the smaller number of persons per household and the fact that structured urban transport policies have been applied in only a few cases, has led to an increase in congestion.
Although the greater individual mobility provided by the motor vehicle may be considered positive, it also implies more intensive use of the space available for circulation.
The most obvious consequence of congestion is the increase in travel time, especially at peak periods, which has reached levels well above those considered acceptable in some cities.
In addition, the slow pace of circulation is a source of exasperation and triggers aggressive behavior in drivers.
Another result is the exacerbation of environmental pollution.
Its relationship with congestion is an aspect that still needs to be studied in greater depth, although valuable evidence has already been obtained in some Latin 
American cities.
Pollution affects the health of all citizens, so that it must be kept below certain limits.
Quite apart from the harm caused by pollution at the local level, however, vehicles also emit greenhouse gases, which adds a global dimension to the issue that cannot be overlooked.
In addition to the above considerations, there are other important harmful effects which should be taken into account, such as the larger number of accidents, the increase in the consumption of fuel for the distance covered and, in general, the higher operating costs of vehicles.
The situation is compounded by the fact that congestion affects not only motorists but also users of public transport, who, in developing countries, are lower-income persons; in addition to lengthening their travel time, there is a possibly even more regrettable consequence for them, which is that congestion pushes up fares, as explained in chapter II.
Nevertheless, a limited degree of congestion may not be altogether unacceptable.
It is preferable to tolerate a certain level than to adopt measures which have an even greater cost.
After all, congestion is a sign of activity, and trying to eliminate it altogether could entail disproportionate investments in the road network which could significantly prejudice various other kinds of socially beneficial ventures.
While it is clear that acute congestion has direct negative consequences, it also has other more general and disturbing effects that loom over cities suffering from it.
Damage to competitiveness.
Congestion interferes with a city’s economic efficiency, since it imposes extra costs that make all activities more expensive and put a damper on development.
In a globalized world like today’s, where customers are more and more demanding and there are many places offering advantages for investors, cities have to be competitive both nationally and internationally.
For this, they must pay attention to, and reduce, various types of costs, including those that are related to transport, such as the time spent travelling, the energy consumed, the level of air pollution and the number of accidents.
Who would start a venture in a city where travel times are intolerable or where there is doubt whether one can arrive on time for one’s daily engagements?
Since there are multiple options worldwide to choose from, a city with serious problems of congestion will drive away investors, however favorable other important conditions may be, such as proximity to the high seats of power or decision-making or the availability of a skilled labor force.
Although traffic congestion may not be the only cause, it can be a major factor in the exodus of various activities from traditional city centres in search of conditions that permit better performance.
There is a real danger that the centre may remain only as the location of government institutions, small businesses and low-income residents, or it may even be partly abandoned, all of which will result in visible deterioration.
Historic centers –especially those of capital cities– harbour a rich heritage which deserves not only to be preserved but also to remain current and in regular use.
In the medium and long term, congestion can make a city’s lifestyle unsustainable.
Excessive travel times, fuel consumption and pollution can cancel out the synergy arising from the concentration of services and opportunities offered by cities.
In a situation marked by increasing difficulties and danger to public health, more and more people will opt to escape from such an environment and migrate somewhere else.
In short, congestion and its consequences are gradually becoming an acute threat to the sustainability of cities.
Cities for living, developing and moving about
There is yet another important consideration, however.
The significant advantages offered by cities have caused them to grow and absorb an inflow of people from rural areas.
Today, however, the benefits offered by the concentration of activities are not enough in themselves: cities must also provide a quality of life in keeping with the intrinsic dignity of human beings.
Currently, quality of life is recognized as a fundamental value which, moreover, must be sustained over time.
In other words, conditions must be generated to make living more pleasant, and this must be on a lasting basis.
Competitiveness and mobility are part of the quality of life, insofar as they provide fuller opportunities for development, work and recreation.
Such conditions favour the possibility of undertaking ventures, working, moving about and relaxing, all of which are considered necessary for better personal fulfilment.
Nevertheless, promoting competitiveness and mobility indiscriminately can, in certain circumstances, detract from the quality of life.
Thus, for example, a generous broadening of the roadway for the circulation of vehicles can confine pedestrians into notably insufficient spaces, swallow up large extensions of green spaces, or result in the segregation of zones or neighbourhoods.
On the contrary, enough public space must be reserved for walking, jogging or simply getting together with other people, since this is an inherent part of the pleasure of living and also has an important effect in terms of promoting better health for today’s sedentary citizens.
Consequently, it is necessary to develop a clear concept of the kind of city which is desired, where there is a harmonious blend of economic efficiency, mobility, a tolerable degree of congestion, a clean environment and a better quality of life, all on a sustainable basis.
Clearly, uncontrolled traffic congestion goes against such aspirations and can give rise to a disturbing future.
Thus, it must be controlled in the short and medium term through the application of technical knowledge, as well as by learning to take useful and sustainable measures which must go hand in hand with new civic attitudes with respect to mobility, the transport system, public spaces and traffic.
At the same time, however, congestion is not a problem to be addressed only in a technical and autonomous way: it must also form part of the broader effort to develop cities for the benefit of people.
In designing concrete measures, account must also be taken of their various impacts on harmonious urban development and care must be taken to prevent negative effects.
This calls for an integral approach which will enable us to attain cities that offer a better quality of life and are sustainable over time.
WHAT IS CONGESTION?
The word “congestion” is frequently employed in the road traffic context, both by technicians and by the public at large.
Webster ’s Third New International Dictionary defines it as “a condition ofovercrowding or overburdening”, while “to congest” means “to overcrowd, overburden or fill to excess so as to obstruct or hinder” something: in this case, road traffic.
It is usually understood as meaning a situation in which there are a large number of vehicles circulating, all of which are moving forward in a slow and irregular manner.
These definitions are of a subjective nature, however, and are not sufficiently precise.
The fundamental cause of congestion is the friction or mutual interference between vehicles in the traffic flow.
Up to a certain level of traffic, vehicles can circulate at a relatively freelydetermined speed which depends on the legal speed limit, the frequency of intersections, and other conditioning factors.
At higher levels of traffic, however, every additional vehicle interferes with the circulation of the others: in other words, the phenomenon of congestion appears.
A possible objective definition, then, would be: “congestion is the situation where the introduction of an additional vehicle into a traffic flow increases the journey times of the others” (Thomson and Bull, 2001).
As traffic increases, traffic speeds go down more and more sharply.
In figure II.
The difference between the two curves represents, for any volume of traffic (q), the increase in the journey times of the other vehicles which are in circulation due to the introduction of an additional vehicle.
It may be noted that the two curves coincide up to a traffic level Oq0; up to that point, the change in the total journey times of all the vehicles is simply the time taken by the additional vehicle, since the others can continue circulating at the same speed as before.
From that point on, however, the two functions diverge, and d(qt)/dq is above t.
This means that each additional vehicle not only experiences its own delay but also increases the delay of all the other vehicles which are already circulating.
Consequently, the individual user is only aware of part of the congestion he causes, while the rest is suffered by the other vehicles in the traffic flow at that moment (Ort?zar, 1994).
In the corresponding specialized language, users are said to perceive the mean private costs, but not the marginal social costs.
Strictly speaking, users do not have a very clear idea of the mean private costs either, since, for example, few drivers have a clear idea of how much it costs them to make an additional journey in terms of maintenance, tyre wear, etc.
In contrast, they do clearly perceive the costs imposed on them by the government –particularly the fuel tax– which are seen as mere transfers from motorists to the State, all of which distorts their manner to taking decisions.
Another conclusion which can be drawn –and which can be confirmed by simple observation– is that at low levels of congestion an increase in the traffic flow does not significantly increase journey times, but at higher levels the same increase causes considerably greater overall delays.
According to the definition given earlier, congestion begins with a traffic level Oq0.
Generally, however, this occurs at relatively low traffic levels, unlike what most people think.
Towards a practical definition in the case of road traffic.
Even some specialized studies do not give very strict definitions of congestion.
Thus, two well-known specialists in transport modeling consider that congestion occurs when the demand nears the capacity of the travel infrastructure and transit times rise to a much higher level than that obtaining in conditions of low demand (Ort?zar and Willumsen, 1994).
Although this definition reflects the perceptions of the average citizen, it does not propose exact limits for the point at which the phenomenon begins.
An attempt to define the term precisely in line with the usual perception of it was that made in a draft law like that approved by the Chilean Chamber of Deputies for the introduction of road use tariffs.
As the aim was to avoid the possibility of discretionarily on the part of public authorities, the definition was very precise.
A road was considered to be congested when, in more than half of its total length (including not necessarily continuous stretches), the average speed of the traffic flow was less than 40% of the speed in unrestricted conditions.
This state of affairs must be registered for at least four hours a day between Tuesday and Thursday, on the basis of measurements made for four consecutive weeks between March and December.
An exact definition was also given of congested areas.
This definition was perhaps too precise and difficult to apply in practice, although so far it has not been necessary to apply it, since the draft law has not yet received full legislative approval.
Without going into such detail, yet continuing to seek objectivity, the term congestion could be defined as “the situation which occurs if the introduction of a vehicle into a traffic flow increases the travel times of the other vehicles by more than x%”.
An objective although still somewhat arbitrary definition of congestion would be to define it as the volume of traffic at which d(qt)/dq = at, where a equals, for example,1.50.
In other words, congestion would begin when the increase in the journey time of all the vehicles already present in the flow was equal to half of the travel time of an additional vehicle.
The transport system, including the provision of urban land for transport infrastructure, operates with very special characteristics, including in particular the following:
Why are big cities prone to congestion?
The demand for transport is “derived”: in other words, journeys are rarely made because of an intrinsic desire to travel but are generally due to the need to travel to the places where various kinds of activities are carried on, such as work, shopping, studies, recreation, relaxation, etc., all of which take place in different locations.
The demand for transport is eminently variable and has very marked peak periods in which a large number of journeys are concentrated because of the desire to make the best use of the hours of the day to carry on the various types of activities and have an opportunity to make contact with other persons.
Transport takes place in limited road spaces, which are fixed and invariable in the short term; as will readily be understood, it is not possible to store up unused road capacity for later use at times of greater demand.
The forms of transport which have the most desirable characteristics – security, comfort, reliability, and autonomy, as in the case of private cars –are those which use the most road space per passenger, as will be explained below.
Especially in urban areas, the provision of road infrastructure to satisfy rush hour demand is extremely costly.
Because of the above factors, congestion occurs at various points, with all its negative consequences of pollution, heavy expenditure of private and social resources, and adverse effects on the quality of life.
A further aggravating factor is that, as noted in the previous section, the cost of congestion is not fully perceived by the users who help to generate it. Every time this happens, more of the good or service in question is consumed than is desirable for society as a whole.
As users are not aware of the greater costs in terms of time and operation that they cause to others, their decisions on routes, forms of transport, points of origin and destination and time of execution of journeys are not taken on the basis of the social costs involved, but their own personal costs or, rather, an often partial perception of those costs.
The natural result is the over-exploitation of the existing road system, at least in certain areas and at certain times.
The problem is mainly caused by private car users.
Some vehicles cause more congestion than others.
In transport engineering, each type of vehicle is assigned a passenger car equivalence called a pcu, or passenger car unit.
A private car is equivalent to 1 pcu, while other vehicles have equivalencies corresponding to their disturbing influence on the traffic flow or the space they occupy in it, as compared with a private car.
A bus is normally considered to be equivalent to 3 pcus and a truck to 2 pcus.
Strictly speaking, however, the pcu factor varies according to whether the vehicle in question is close to an intersection or is in a stretch of road between two intersections.
Although a bus causes more congestion than a private car, it generally carries more persons.
Thus, if a bus carries 50 passengers but a private car only carries an average of 1.5 persons, then every private car passenger is causing 11 times as much congestion as a bus passenger.
Consequently, other things being equal, congestion is reduced if the share of buses in the intermodal journey mix is increased.
Unless buses transport less than 4.5 passengers, on average they cause less congestion than private cars.
It is not normal for buses to transport fewer than 4.5 passengers, although this can sometimes happen, as for example in some sectors of Santiago, Chile, at off-peak hours in the late 1980s, or in Lima ten years later.
The existence of an excessive number of public transport vehicles can help to increase congestion, as noted in a number of cities.
One of the features of the current economic models is deregulation, and in the case of urban passenger transport, broad deregulation is normally reflected in an exaggerated increase in the number of buses and taxis and a deterioration in the levels of order and discipline associated with their operation.
This phenomenon bore much of the blame for the deterioration in congestion in Santiago in the 1980s and in Lima in the following decade.
The liberalization of the rules on the importation of used vehicles and the deregulation of public transport both had particularly serious effects in Lima.
In Santiago, which had some 4,300,000 inhabitants in the late 1980s, there were relatively few cases of the importation of used vehicles, and the public transport fleet (all types of buses, plus collective taxis) did not amount to more than 16,000 vehicles.
In the mid-1990s in Lima, however, which had some 6,700,000 inhabitants at that time, the public transport fleet amounted to at least 38,000 vehicles (and some sources indicate that the real number was close to 50,000).
In other words, in the mid-1990s the number of units per inhabitant in Lima was between 52% and 101% higher than it had been in Santiago some seven years before, at a time when deregulation in Chile was having its most striking results.
The state of the roads and driving habits also contribute to congestion
Urban road networks: design and maintenance problems
Faulty design or maintenance of roadsystems causes unnecessary congestion.
In many cities there are frequent cases of failure to mark traffic lanes, unexpected changes in the numberof lanes, bus stops located precisely where the road width becomes narrower, and other shortcomings which disturb a smooth traffic flow.
Likewise, road surfaces in bad condition, and especially the presence of potholes, give rise to increasing constraints on road capacity and increase congestion.
In many Latin American cities, such as Caracas, the accumulation of rainwater on roads reduces their traffic capacity and hence increases congestion.
Some driving habits cause more congestion than others
There are drivers who show little respect for other road users.
In some cities, such as Lima, many drivers try to cut a few seconds off their journey times by forcing their way into intersections and blocking the passage of other motorists, thus causing economic losses to others which are much greater than their own gains.
In other cities, such as Santiago, it is a tradition for buses to stop immediately before an intersection, thereby causing congestion (and accidents).
In those same cities, as in others that have an excessive number of taxis that do not habitually operate from fixed taxi ranks, these vehicles crawl along looking for passengers, and this also gives rise to congestion.
In addition to these practices, the traffic flows also often include old and poorly maintained vehicles, as well as some drawn by animals.
It must be borne in mind that when the traffic flow resumes after being stopped at a traffic light, a form of congestion ensues because vehicles with a normal rate of acceleration are held up by slower vehicles located in front of them.
Furthermore, a vehicle which is stopped or moving sluggishly seriously affects the smooth flow of traffic, since in effect it blocks a traffic lane.
Insufficient information is available on traffic conditions
Another factor which increases congestion is ignorance of the prevailing traffic conditions.
If a motorist with two possible routes, A and B, for reaching his destination knew that traffic conditions were bad on route A, he could use route B, where his own contribution to congestion would be less.
A study of a hypothetical city made in the University of Texas in the United States indicates that the fact of being well informed about traffic conditions in different parts of the road network can reduce congestion much more than such drastic measures as levying charges for using congested streets (IMT, 2000).
Basic unfamiliarity with the road system can also increase the average distance of each journey and thereby contribute to congestion.
The result is that there is a generalized reduction in capacity
Generally speaking, both the way motorists drive and the state of the road and vehicles mean that in Latin America a street or urban road network will assuredly have a lower capacity than one of similar dimensions located in Europe or North America.
Measurements made in Caracas in the early 1970s showed that an expressway there had only 67% of the capacity of a United States expressway of similar size.
The actual percentage difference may vary from one city to another, but there is no doubt that the road systems of Latin American cities are relatively prone to congestion.
There is also an institutional problem
In almost all Latin American cities, the deterioration in traffic conditions has been significantly worse than it could and should have been, partly because of inappropriate actions by the corresponding authorities.
It is obvious that the problem has clearly overtaken the institutional capacity to deal with the situation.
So far, the reaction of the authorities has only been of a piecemeal nature, because in virtually the whole region the responsibility for urban transport planning and management is split up among a host of bodies, including various national ministries, regional governments, municipalities, suburban train or metro companies, the traffic police, etc.
Each of these does what it considers to be most appropriate, without taking much account of the repercussions on the interests of the other institutions.
A municipality, for example, fearing the diversion of economic activity to another part of the city, may authorize the construction of multi-storey car parks, or allow parking on the streets, without bothering about the impact of the congestion thus generated on road users who have to cross through the area in question.
Another situation which reflects the consequences of decisions taken without coordination and without considering their broader repercussions may occur in the context of a mass transit system such as the metro.
Because of the greater accessibility provided, land use becomes more dense and office blocks are built, and as municipal regulations usually demand a certain minimum number of private parking spaces for such buildings, this encourages the staff to come to work in their cars.
Thus, this set of measures fosters increased congestion.
Furthermore, in such a sensitive area as urban transport, strong pressures are exerted by organized groups, such as transport interests, as well as by politicians, who put forward their own points of view and sometimes take up arms on behalf of particular interests, which complicates the situation still further.
All the above factors are a source of distortions, yet urban transport should be handled in an integral, technical manner, instead of measures being taken separately by each institution or in favor of sectoral interests.
THE INVASION OF THE PRIVATE CAR
The last decade of the twentieth century brought with it a big increase in the number of private cars circulating in Latin America, as well as in their use for the most varied purposes, including journeys to places of work or study, thus exerting heavy pressure on the road network.
What are the causes of these phenomena?
Economic reforms have made private cars more easily accessible.
Among other effects, the economic reforms adopted in the region in the 1990s brought with them higher economic growth rates and lower car prices.
Instead of the almost always negative per capita GDP growth rates of the 1980s, the 1990s brought relatively high positive growth rates.
Thus, for example, Uruguay went from an average annual growth rate of -1% between 1981 and 1988 to a rate of +4% between 1991 and 1994 (ECLAC, 1989 and 1995a).
This had a favorable repercussion on personal income levels, thus making more resources available for the acquisition of consumer durables.
At the same time, in many cases there was a reduction in the tax burden on automobiles, especially in customs duties.
Moreover, in some countries there was an appreciation in the exchange rate, thus making imported products cheaper to buy.
In Colombia, for example, the real exchange rate in 1994 was only equivalent to 75% of that prevailing in 1990 (IDB, 1995).
This tendency does not necessarily mean that actual prices are lower, because at the same time the quality of vehicles has improved.
In the case of those vehicles whose characteristics have remained relatively unchanged, however, there has been a real reduction in their purchase prices.
In the Chilean market, for example, in 1996 a Volkswagen Beetle cost the equivalent of US$ 7,780, whereas in 1982 it had cost the equivalent of US$ 8,902 at 1996 prices.
The real reduction in the prices of used cars has undoubtedly been even greater, although it is difficult to obtain reliable data in this respect.
The rate of depreciation of private cars is directly related with the rate of ownership.
In countries where there are few vehicles per person, a second-hand car is a relatively scarce good, and the price at which it is sold will reflect a limited supply and, sometimes, abundant demand.
The rise in rates of vehicle ownership in Latin America in recent years has reduced the relative scarcity of used cars, thus tending to increase supply and reduce demand, because a larger proportion of the population now already have one, and hence drive down prices, putting such vehicles within the reach of lower-income families.
Consequently, in the current Latin American situation real incomes are rising and automobile prices are tending to go down.
The popularization of private car ownership.
In Latin American cities, the evolution of residents’ incomes and car prices –especially those of used cars– means that ownership of a vehicle is ceasing to be an unattainable dream and is becoming an accomplished fact for many families.
The increase in the rate of car ownership is a phenomenon which is repeated almost everywhere in Latin America and has made it possible –especially for the middle class– to reap one of the most important fruits of technological progress in the twentieth century.
In the countries where economic reforms were implemented rapidly, automobile imports increased equally fast.
The column corresponding to Peru shows that between 1990 and 1991 the value of automobile imports increased by a factor of 14.
Peru freed not only the importation of new vehicles but also that of used ones (except for a brief period between February and November 1996).
Consequently, the average unit cost went down, indicating that the number of units imported must have increased even more than the total value of imports.
In some countries that manufacture motor vehicles themselves, the economic reforms resulted in an increase both in vehicle imports and in domestic production.
This was so in Brazil, where automobile imports had been subject to heavy duties, as part of a policy designed to promote domestic production of these goods.
Thus, between 1990 and 1994 imports grew by over 10,000%, albeit starting from a very low level, yet domestic automobile production also rose, by 70%.
Vehicle exports were reduced because manufacturers preferred to sell their output on the growing domestic market (see table II.2).
Another factor which influenced the situation, during a period from mid-1994 on, was the appreciation of the local currency.
A concrete result was that in S?o Paulo, between 1990 and 1996 the population grew by 3.4% but the vehicle fleet expanded by 36.5%.
This equation has the expected form, although it could perhaps be subject to some technical reservations.
By using it, it is possible to estimate the elasticity or unit variation in the rate of automobile ownership with respect to income level.
Table II.3 shows that this elasticity is inversely related to income level.
Although the elasticity in low-income communes (La Pintana) is very high, a 1% increase in income only gives rise to a small increase in the absolute number of automobiles per family.
In contrast, a 1% increase in income in a middle-income commune results in an increase in the absolute number of automobiles per family which is very similar to that registered for a very high-income commune.
The most important conclusion to be drawn from this analysis is that an increase in income results in significant expansion of automobile ownership, not only in the richest neighborhoods but also in middle-income areas.
Thus the total number of automobiles in Santiago grew at the rate of 8% per year during the 1990s.
where there are fewer cars it nevertheless seems harder to get about?
The growing number of vehicles undoubtedly favours increased congestion, but at all events the rates of automobile ownership in Latin American cities are still much lower than in developed countries.
In 1980, the number of automobiles per person in North American cities such as Houston, Los Angeles, Phoenix, San Francisco, Detroit, Dallas, Denver, Toronto and Washington was between 0.55 and 0.85, while in European cities such as Brussels, Amsterdam, Copenhagen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, London, Stuttgart and Paris it was between 0.23 and 0.43.
Ten or fifteen years later, some Latin American cities (such as Chiclayo or Huancayo in Peru) still had no more than 0.02 cars per inhabitant, and in Lima, even though the boom in vehicle imports had already begun, there were still no more than 0.05 cars per person, while in Santiago there were 0.09.
On the other hand, in a few Latin American cities the rate of ownership was already nearing the lower limit of Western European cities.
In Curitiba, for example, in 1995 there were already close to 0.29 cars per person.
Nevertheless, there is evidence that it is easier to move about in the big cities of the developed world than in the comparable cities of Latin America.
In Quito, whose population in 1990 was approximately one million, the average journey time between home and workplace was 56 minutes, whereas in Munich, which had approximately 1.3 million inhabitants, the corresponding time was only 25 minutes.
Likewise, in Bogot? (5 million inhabitants) the journey time was 90 minutes, while in London (6.8 million) it was 30 minutes.
Many other examples along the same lines could be quoted.
Clearly, in the cities of the developed world there is a greater capacity to live with the automobile while avoiding its worst consequences, but Latin America has not yet learned to do this.
Furthermore, it would appear to be easier to move about in the Latin American cities with the highest rates of car ownership than in many where the rates are lower.
Curitiba, for example, has more cars per person than Guatemala City, which is of similar size, but travelling in the first-named city, whether by car or in public transport, is a good deal less disagreeable than in the Central American city.
The explanation for these apparent contradictions is to be found in the marked propensity to make intensive use of private cars for all kinds of purposes.
The strong influence of subjective factors.
One feature which aggravates congestion in Latin America is the marked preference of the population to use private cars.
A clear example was Mexico City, which has suffered for years from acute problems of congestion.
In order to reduce environmental pollution, it was decided to prohibit the use of one-fifth of the existing vehicles from Monday through Friday, but even this drastic measure did not succeed in persuading those affected to use public transport, even though there was an extensive metro system.
Instead, the widespread response was to acquire additional vehicles to evade the effects of the measure, since many people preferred to suffer the effects of congestion rather than use public transport.
In such circumstances, even if the authorities responsible for Latin American urban transport had clear ideas about how to control traffic in the cities (which is unfortunately often not the case), it would be difficult to put them into practice because members of parliament and city councillors, worried about losing votes among the increasingly numerous group of private car owners, would not approve them.
The inhabitants of the cities of the developed world are less likely to use their cars to go to the office in the morning rush hour.
A clear distinction is drawn between owning a car, and using it in situations that give rise to major difficulties.
A New York or London banker living in the suburbs would never dream of travelling every day to Wall Street or the City in his private car, because in both cases there is a good-quality public transport system.
In contrast, his opposite number in S?o Paulo or Santiago would never dream of travelling to the city centre any other way.
It is likely, however, that in the future there will be a change of attitude among motorists, and indeed, in some cities with a notably higher level of culture –such as Buenos Aires, where the quality of public transport is also higher than in most Latin American cities– there is already some evidence of a greater willingness to use public transport than in some other cities of the region.
What is the reason or explanation why there is such a strong preference for using private cars?
One important aspect in this connection is that of status.
In Latin America, the automobile is still considered not only a means of transport, but also an indication of its owner’s status in society.
A person driving a BMW will be considered as superior to one driving a Suzuki, while a person who arrives at the office by car rather than bus is seen as someone who has moved up in the world.
The prestige attached to being a car owner is a strong factor in the volume of traffic.
In addition to these reasons related with the social structure and cultural characteristics, the following considerations are also important in the region:
The poor quality of the buses compared with the aspirations of car owners.
The fact that the buses are very crowded at rush hours.
The feeling of insecurity caused by the dangerous way some bus drivers operate their vehicles.
The real or assumed possibility of being a victim of delinquents on board public transport vehicles.
The preference for travelling by private car becomes a problem at rush hours, when there is a concentration of journeys for reasons of work or study.
Not even serious delays in journeys are enough to cause people to stop using their cars.
If they had to choose between reaching their destination slowly by private car on congested roads and arriving a little more quickly by public transport, it is by no means certain that many Latin American motorists would opt for the latter alternative.
The strong preference for the private car therefore has a number of consequences, such as the following:
The number of motorists willing to move to new public transport systems of no more than regular quality may be quite small, so that the great majority of users of a new metro line would come from former bus users rather than private motorists.
In order to interest private motorists in public transport it would be necessary to offer them a better-class option, not only in terms of objective quality (fares, journey times and frequency of service) but also in terms of its subjective features (air conditioning, reclining seats, etc.)
Even if high taxes are imposed on fuel, road use or parking, this would only cause a few people to change to public transport.
Thus, these measures would serve rather to collect money that could be used to change the habits of the travelling public, and ii) while raising these levels of taxation would produce considerable fiscal income, it would bring relatively few social benefits.
The preference for travelling by private car can also have other consequences which go beyond the limits of the transport sector proper and have negative macroeconomic implications.
Consider, for example, the rises in international oil prices in 1999 and 2000.
The typical Latin American motorist probably did not reduce his vehicle use much but instead restricted his consumption of other goods and services –many of them produced domestically– thereby reducing the demand for them in the short term.
At the same time, importing countries had to increase the amount of foreign exchange spent on fuels because of their higher prices and the fact that demand for them is inelastic or at least not very sensitive to price variations.
Having a car to go to a shopping centre, visit friends or relations in distant parts of town, or travel outside the city is one of the fruits of economic development, and its costs are generally internalized to a large extent by car owners, since these journeys are made at times of low congestion.
Using the car every day to go to the office or the city centre generates high external costs in terms of congestion and pollution and does considerable harm to society, however.
Securing a better balance between the ownership and use of private cars is therefore one of the main challenges to be faced today in the Latin American transport sector.
HOW SERIOUS IS THE PROBLEM, AND WHO SUFFERS ITS EFFECTS?
Various indicators point to a serious and worsening situation.
Taken as a whole, urban transport is a major activity in national life.
The operation of the vehicles circulating on the roads of cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants absorbs around 3.5% of the GDP of Latin America and the Caribbean, to say nothing of non-essential journeys such as weekend trips.
The social value of the time taken up by journeys is equivalent to about a further 3% of GDP (Thomson, 2000b).
It can be seen from these figures that resources involved in urban transport are very significant.
These percentages are very probably on the increase, for various reasons.
One is the increase in the rate of vehicle ownership and the tendency towards intensive use of automobiles, as already mentioned.
Another is the expansion of the cities and the consequently longer journeys needed (Thomson, 2002a).
The growing demand for use of a relatively constant road supply inevitably leads to a progressive decline in traffic speeds.
This situation is deteriorating at an increasingly rapid rate, as shown by the form of the statically determined equations relating traffic speed on a street with the traffic volume.
At rush hours, a large part of the road network in Latin American cities is operating very close to its maximum capacity, which means that even small increases in traffic flows very severely aggravate congestion.
Although there are not many data directly reflecting the trend in terms of congestion over the years, data for S?o Paulo indicate that in 1992, on average, some 28 kilometers of the main road network suffered from acute congestion in the morning and 39 kilometers in the evening, but by 1996 the number of kilometers had risen to 80 and 122, respectively (Compamia de Engenharia de Tr?fego, 1998).
The case of Santiago, Chile, is interesting because this city is the capital of the Latin American country where the process of economic reform and greater openness began.
There is growing congestion, not only in the richest communes but also in some middle-income ones.
Congestion exists not only in the avenues of the highest-income neighborhoods, located in the northeastern part of the city, and in the roads leading into the city centre, but also in roads in other parts of the city where family incomes are much lower, and which are not even areas of habitual transit for persons with high incomes.
With regard to the cost of the congestion caused, estimates for the conditions prevailing in Caracas in 1971, when the situation was not as serious as it is today, indicate that each occupant of a private car gave rise to a congestion cost of US$ 0.
18 per kilometre, at 2000 prices, while the cost for each bus passenger was US$ 0.
02 per kilometre.
It therefore seems reasonable to conclude that the costs of congestion are high and that, conversely, the adoption of measures of only moderate cost in order to reduce them would bring significant net benefits.
Conservative calculations show that increasing the average speed of private car journeys by 1 km/hr and that of public transport by 0.5 km/hr would reduce journey times and operating costs by an amount equivalent to 0.1% of GDP (Thomson, 2000b).
In any case, the mere fact of measuring traffic speeds or calculating the monetary costs of congestion does not reflect the full depth of the problem.
For example, there are people who, in order to avoid some of the effects of congestion, change their forms of conduct and adopt habits which they would not normally prefer, such as leaving the house very early in order to travel before the times of worst congestion, or living close to their workplace.
There are also other serious consequences that severely affect urban living conditions, including the increased air pollution caused by the higher fuel consumption of vehicles moving at low speed in severely congested traffic conditions, higher noise levels around the main roads and streets, the irritability caused by loss of time, and the increased stress of driving in the midst of an excessively congested mass of vehicles.
These other results of congestion may be difficult to quantify, but they nevertheless cannot be ignored, since they are factors that further aggravate an already serious situation.
 Who pays the costs of congestion?
It must be clearly stated, for a start, that the harmful effects of congestion are suffered by all city dwellers, in terms of a deterioration in various aspects of their quality of life, such as greater air and noise pollution, a negative impact on mental health, etc.
Therefore, one way or another, no-one is immune to those effects.
If the analysis is centered on those who have to travel, the effects of congestion can be determined by breaking down its cost into two fundamental components: the time of the persons involved and the operating costs of vehicles, especially fuel.
Both of these costs are increased when travelling in conditions of congestion.
There is no question but that motorists themselves suffer the consequences of congestion.
In other words, they suffer the effects of the phenomenon for which they themselves are responsible, in terms of longerjourney times and higher operating costs.
However, motorists are not the only ones who suffer the effects of congestion, for this also aggravates the already unsatisfactory condition of public transport, whose users are thus also seriously affected, although they are not responsible for causing the problem.
This situation is a source of social inequity, since public transport is used mainly by poorer persons, who are thus captive clients.
Congestion holds up bus passengers
Congestion obviously causes bus passengers to take longer to complete their journeys.
These longer journey times are a loss in real terms, although perhaps this does not attract so much attention because these passengers have relatively low incomes, so that their personal time is assigned a low monetary value.
Especially in Latin America, urban bus users have much lower incomes than those of urban motorists.
In Santiago, Chile, analysis of the data from a study of origins and destinations carried out in 1991 enables the family income of bus passengers to be estimated at 99,321 pesos, compared with a family income of 308,078 pesos for private car users.
In other words, the income of private car users was over three times that of bus passengers.
Data for S?o Paulo in 1977 show that in principle the situation there was not too different from that of Santiago (see table II.4), and if measurements were available for other cities of the region they would probably give similar conclusions.
Another factor, which many passengers may consider to be more important than longer journey times, is the level of bus fares.
Congestion holds up not only the occupants of buses, but also the buses themselves, so that in order to provide a given transport capacity it is necessary to use more buses, with their respective drivers, consequently resulting in higher fares.
This phenomenon was analysed in 1982 and it was estimated that an increase in the average speed of public transport in Santiago from 15 to 17.5 km/hr at peak hours would make it possible to reduce fares by as much as 5% (Thomson, 1982).
A more recent study on the largest cities in Brazil estimated that congestion increased the operating costs of bus transport by up to 16% (see table II.5).
It may be noted that the percentage reductions were much lower in the cases of Brasilia, where the amount of road space is unusually generous, and Curitiba, where the buses operating the radial routes have exclusive bus lanes.
In the conditions prevailing in the year 2000, after almost 20 years of real increases in the cost of buses and the incomes of their drivers, a reduction in fares of 10% would undoubtedly be feasible.
Traffic congestion, especially in the big cities, is an increasingly widespread problem all over the world.
The enormous and growing costs caused by it in terms of loss of time and vehicle operation make it essential to find ways and means of tackling it.
In urban areas, especially at times of greatest demand, congestion is inevitable and may even be desirable, within certain limits, in that the costs it causes may be less than those needed to eliminate it altogether.
Trying to do away with congestion altogether would involve the following costs, among others:
Those connected with the investments needed to expand road capacity, which may exceed the costs caused by moderate levels of congestion
Those caused as a consequence of the diversion of users to other roads, forms of transport or times of travel
Those associated with the possible suppression of journeys as a result of the application of restrictions on motorists.
Furthermore, under-utilization of the existing road space also represents a loss of benefits for society, and it should not be forgotten, either, that congestion is a result of human activity which, in spite of the congestion caused, represents advantages for those making the journeys in question (Taylor, 2002): naturally, a city with a low level of activity will not suffer from congestion.
It is therefore not a question of trying to eliminate congestion completely, since this is either impossible or very costly, and it may not even be desirable.
What is essential is to keep congestion under control, since if it becomes more serious this will adversely affect the sustainability of big cities.
The authorities should take a new view of the situation
The deterioration in traffic conditions has been considerably worse than it could and should have been, partly because of the inappropriate measures taken by the responsible authorities.
The expansion in the number of private vehicles has clearly exceeded the institutional capacity for dealing with the situation.
So far, the authorities have only reacted in a piecemeal manner, because all over Latin America responsibility for the planning and management of urban transport is split up among a host of bodies, including various national ministries, regional governments, municipalities, suburban train or metro companies, the traffic police, etc.
Each one of these does what it considers best, without taking much account of the repercussions on the interests of the other institutions.
Thus, for example, because a municipality fears the possible diversion of economic activity to another part of the city, it may authorize the construction of multi-storey car parks, or allow on-street parking, without bothering about the impact of the congestion thus generated on road users crossing through the area in question.
Another situation reflecting the consequences of separate decisions taken without foreseeing their broader repercussions may arise in the context of a mass transit system such as the metro.
Because of the greater accessibility created, land use becomes more intensive, office blocks are built, and as municipal regulations usually require a certain minimum number of private parking spaces for such buildings, this encourages the staff to come to work by car.
In other words, these measures regarding parking spaces foster an increase in congestion.
Likewise, in an area as sensitive as that of urban transport, strong pressures are exerted by organized groups –road transport firms, for example– as well as by politicians who put forward their points of view and sometimes come out in defence of particular interests.
All this leads to distortions and complicates the situation still further.
Institutions must therefore expand the size and quality of their capacity to respond to problems and, even better, address them in advance.
It is also necessary to develop the capacity to withstand the pressures experienced from so many different sources.
What is needed, then, is growing professional and specialized competence in transport management, both in the responsible bodies and in universities and national consulting firms.
Traffic must also be dealt with in a global manner, and not separately at the level of each individual institution.
Congestion is too serious and far-reaching a problem to believe that it can be relieved through unilateral, erratic or voluntarist measures.
On the contrary, keeping it under control and ensuring a minimum of sustainability of urban standards of living calls for a multidisciplinary effort which includes the improvement of driving habits, the provision of better infrastructure, and measures to manage traffic (supply-side management) and rationalize the use of public roads (demand management).
In other words, the problem must be approached in an integral manner and a set of feasible measures must be taken to improve the productivity of the urban transport system, while bearing in mind at all times that the application of a given measure may have repercussions on other aspects of road traffic, and this must be anticipated in order to avoid negative effects.
What is transport supply?
Transport supply consists of a combination of means that make transportation possible.
Urban transport supply tends to be categorized according to its capacity, that is, the number of persons who can be transported in a given period of time.
Just from the infrastructure standpoint, capacity is usually measured as the number of vehicles that can circulate in a given area in a certain period of time; this parameter is meaningful when analyzing congestion, but it should not be forgotten that what really matters in a city is allowing people to move around satisfactorily.
The simplest forms of road infrastructure are nodes and arcs.
Nodes or intersections are points where two or more roads cross, meaning that the road space is shared by them; at intersections, vehicles can switch routes.
Arcs are stretches of motorway between intersections, generally of uniform width; it is not possible for vehicles travelling along an arc to change routes; they are only able to exit or enter the roadway from adjacent properties.
A succession of arcs and intersections make up what is called the road axis, or simply the road or street.
Roads cross each other to form a true grid.
For this reason, what happens on one street can have repercussions on others, especially in situations of congestion.
Hence, in technical language the term “road networks” is used for the combination of arcs and nodes that join together to make up a system.
Traffic patterns make this evident, as the impact of one incident spreads throughout a region in a chain reaction.
A road network should be treated as such, which often means that the areas of analysis must be expanded so that suitable measures can be adopted to improve transport operations.
A wide variety of vehicles use the streets and avenues of a city, ranging from cars to large buses and multi-passenger, service and freight vehicles of all sorts.
There numerous types of vehicles transport persons and things, although their forms and quality of service vary.
In addition, there are modes of transportation that do not make use of motorways, such as subway systems.
An important issue in connection with congestion is the use that each type of vehicle makes of the space available for circulation, and it should be noted that those carrying the most passengers are the most efficient in this regard, even though they may not fare as well in rrelation to other criteria such as speed of movement or convenience.
Management of the transport system.
The road network and vehicles should be considered as a whole, since the same infrastructure and the same types of vehicles can yield quite different transport capacities.
In other words, how the system is managed makes a big difference.
Whether the streets have one- or two-way traffic, whether one can turn in any direction at all intersections, whether traffic lights are synchronized, whether average vehicle occupancy is high or low, or whether buses are given priority on the roadway, are all factors that change the outcome.
In fact, it is the combination of infrastructure, vehicles and transport management that determines transport capacity or supply.
Frequent calls to expand transport supply.
In a given situation, a high concentration of activities in urban areas and the intensive use of public space, particularly by transit vehicles, can create an imbalance between the volume of traffic and the capacity of the motorways.
The result is vehicle congestion, a deterioration in service for drivers and passengers and a poorer quality of life for the population in general.
As congestion becomes apparent, one option to combat it is to expand the supply of transport.
Supply-side measures include actions affecting roads, vehicles and their operation.
Improving any component of supply yields benefits in the form of reduced congestion.
The first option considered is usually to enlarge the capacity of the road network with a view to enhancing the flow of traffic.
With respect to the infrastructure, the greatest technical efforts have traditionally focused on easing or eliminating congestion, and many of the measures proposed are intended to improve intersections or roadways.
Large and costly projects such as expanding or building expensive highways or building under- and overpasses are viewed more favourably than other alternatives, even though they often do not provide a lasting solution.
In any event, the idea of making a large number of small improvements, such as upgrading crosswalks or improving signposting, should not be discounted because they can yield great benefits when properly designed.
It is also possible to focus on the size of vehicles or their capacity as away of making more efficient use of road space.
Initiatives such as large-capacity buses on heavily trafficked avenues, collective taxis and carpooling are examples of this approach.
The third component of supply is management, which provides countless options that are increasingly broad in scope, thanks to modern technology.
Synchronization of traffic signals, bus priority systems, flexible management of the direction of travel and efficient traffic reporting systems have all made valuable contributions, for example.
It is not hard to see that the three components of supply are closely linked to each other.
Measures affecting them can and should be complementary in order to enlarge capacity and ease congestion in the short term.
The choice of the right packages is the key.
Cities are for living and moving.
Supply-side measures are designed to improve mobility and possibilities for getting around the city.
As important as this is, however, other essential urban values must be safeguarded as well, including habitability and quality of life.
Hence the importance of considering the urban impact associated with every measure, since the degree to which changes in the form and use of motor will ways affect adjacent areas depends on the scale of those chanfes and the type of land use involved.
Some of the most serious consequences of inadequate transport supply management in response to congestion are the lass of space, the lower priosity that may be given to pedestrians and the segragation of districts and neighbourhoods.
Sidewalks and green spaces have suffered from the physical encroachment of road projects, which may the walking and recreational opportunities for residents, adults and children alike.
On other occasions, virtually impassable barriers have been erected to prevent local access, which definitely translates into a poorer quality of life.
It is not easy to balance mobility and habitability.
One way to make these two factors compatible is to designate specialized functions for certain roadways, giving priority to the flow of traffic on main arteries while restoring the neighbourhood atmosphere on streets leading to places where trips are generally started or finished.
All urban motorways that exist today can be placed somewhere
Some routes can be designated for joining distant points of origin and destinations, with little or no intermediate access to properties located along the way, while always providing solutions for interconnectivity between adjacent areas.
This type of thoroughfare does not appear to be appropriate for city centres, as it inhibits pedestrians and may generate noise pollution.
Other streets should give priority to local access, which may even be accomplished by going so far as to make them inconvenient for going from one part of the city to another.
And finally, another category of streets and avenues could lend themselves more to mobility or to access, without excluding other uses.
The classification of roadways and the definition of the corresponding design and operational criteria would make it possible to establish an order in which the two prime functions of urban life, habitability and mobility, could remain in balance.
Intersections are points where two or more roads cross.
Normally, it is intersections that determine the capacity of thoroughfares; because they are a common point between two or more roads, they must allow for the alternation of conflicting flows.
Thus, traffic spends less time moving when it reaches an intersection than when it is flowing along an arc or straight line.
Consequently, intersections become congested first and indeed become bottlenecks or operational restrictions for the entire system.
That is why interventions in intersections have a great potential benefit for traffic flow.
Crossroads.
These are made up of four branches coming together in the shape of a cross.
Multiple intersections.
These are made up of more than four branches and are the most difficult case to deal with.
It is generally preferable to eliminate one of the branches, connecting it to another outside the intersection if possible.
Roundabouts.
In this solution, branches are joined by means of a circular, elliptical or similar ring around which vehicles travel until they reach the branch where they exit.
It may require that incoming and outgoing traffic be weaved together at one or more points (figure III.4).
Traffic signals should not be used and incoming vehicles should yield to those already in the ring on the left (MIDEPLAN, 1998a).
One example of this type of solution is the mini-roundabout, characterized by a considerably smaller centre island less than five metres in diametre.
Figure III.4 shows a British example, in which a mini-roundabout significantly 
The roundabout is a compromise that can offer some advantages if many of the following conditions are also present (MIDEPLAN, 1998a).
Intersections with five or more branches and more or less equal traffic volume on all of them.
Relatively large flows going around, exceeding the flow travelling straight.
Extensive flat land available at a low price.
Little pedestrian traffic. 
Sufficient distance between each pair of consecutive branches to enable traffic to weave together.
The capacity of the roundabout is determined by the most critical of its segments.
Because they have the potential to become congested, intersections should be carefully designed.
In general, in urban areas the predominant criterion for intersections will be to increase their capacity, since it is normal for them to reach saturation during some periods of operation.
This effort necessarily involves physical and operational aspects that must be addressed simultaneously.
In the last few decades, a number of computer models have been developed to assist in the design effort.
These models, in turn, have specific data requirements that must be added to those mentioned above.
Thus, intersection design can be viewed as an iterative process in which physical and operational changes can be modelled at low cost and their performance tested.
A wide range of options can be explored and high-quality solutions achieved.
The simulation of each option’s operational results also facilitates the economic evaluation of the most appropriate alternatives, so that the solution with the best economic attributes can be chosen.
To enlarge capacity, it is recommended that islands be kept to the smallest size necessary to protect vehicles undertaking certain movements; in addition, the number of lanes should increase as each road approaches the intersection to achieve the maximum rate of vehicle clearance or discharge.
Another element to be taken into account in cities is the location of bus stops.
They cannot be too far away from key intersections, as these are precisely where passengers will want to transfer, but neither can they be so close to intersections that their operations are hampered.
As mentioned earlier, intersections tend to impose an operational restriction on a roadway.
Therefore, the control systems put in place to regulate the right of way should respond to both the needs of the specific location and the general criteria of the axis or network in question.
Basically, intersections can operate with priority signposting (prioritized intersection) or traffic signals (signalized intersection).
The former are governed by stop signs and the latter by signal lights.
These intersections regulate the right of way with yield or stop signs.
The yield sign tells drivers who encounter it that the vehicles on the other road have priority; they do not need to stop if the flow of traffic on the main road allows enough room for them to cross or turn onto that road safely.
This sign should be installed in all cases in which visibility is not restricted, according to the criteria listed below.
The stop sign is intended to instruct drivers to bring their vehicles to a complete stop and to resume motion only when they can do so without causing an accident.
It should be placed on the line where the vehicles must stop, in such a way that the driver can see the main road well enough to pull out safely.
Traffic signals are a more sophisticated means of controlling an intersection.
They make it possible to separate the periods of time when the traffic flowing on each road can cross the intersection.
The allocation of times is called “distribution”, and the cycle is the time elapsed from the beginning of a phase until that phase is reactivated.
In general, traffic signals are considered a positive development that yields benefits and enhances safety in any situation.
This belief is not always corroborated, however.
To provide real benefits to the population, a number of conditions must be present so that the benefits of a traffic signal are actually greater than the costs.
For example, given the variability of demand, it is possible that a traffic signal may be fully justified during certain periods of the day or certain seasons of the year, but represent a cost to the community at other times.
Expansion of physical capacity.
Arcs are stretches of roadway between intersections.
Normally they do not give rise to major conflicts.
There may, however, be situations in which an arc becomes a bottleneck within a succession of arcs and intersections.
The most appropriate solution is to expand their physical capacity.
Increasing the capacity of the entire roadway axis may also be considered, if a significant expansion of the roadway supply is contemplated.
In this case, there is competition from alternative uses of public space and even private space if expropriations are necessary.
From the standpoint of controlling congestion, it is worth noting that increases in physical capacity such as the latter option above tend to provide only short-term solutions to imbalances between supply and demand, since pent-up demand resulting from the congestion itself tends to become fully expressed in a relatively short time, as a more fluid and expeditious operation attracts more traffic.
Thus, congestion has a tendency to regenerate itself with higher flow levels.
If this trend takes hold, it can end up committing public space to motorized transport, to the exclusion of pedestrian traffic and other activities in that space.
This phenomenon is especially acute in cities that have consciously or unconsciously chosen to provide greater capacity in response to increased flows.
Other cities, in contrast, perhaps because of the special significance of their architectural or historical heritage, have explored alternatives to generating more capacity without allocating significant amounts of new land for vehicular use.
The traditional expansion of physical capacity is thus being replaced by more efficient ways of using that capacity.
Naturally, synchronizing traffic lights appears to be the best option for improving speed on thoroughfares, thus reducing travel times and congestion (see section D below).
But another possibility is to change the direction of traffic on arcs or roadways during certain hours of the day as a function of the principal movements of commuters.
And still another is to assign lanes by type of vehicle, facilitating the travel of those that make the most efficient use of space, namely, mass transit vehicles.
This method of increasing capacity can also attract new vehicles to the flow and soon the new facilities are pushed to the limit again.
Therefore, explicit consideration of the modes of transportation favored by the improvement should also be part of the analysis and medium- and long-term projections.
Reversible-flow roads are those that change the direction of traffic throughout the day depending on the volume in each direction, with a view to enhancing flow in the direction with the higher volume.
The direction of traffic can thus be reversed on a one-way street, or a two-way street can be turned into a one-way street, temporarily providing greater capacity for accommodating the massive flows that characterize the travel patterns and general operating rhythm of cities.
These movements tend to occur, for example, from residential areas to places of work or study during peak hours in the morning and vice-versa during peak hours in the afternoon.
This finely tuned management of existing capacity makes more intensive use of the principal roadways by accommodating the greatest flow of traffic.
 In many cases, this measure significantly enlarges the transport supply in order to meet rush-hour needs.
In 2001, Chilean transportation authorities implemented a number of transit management measures, among the most noteworthy being the variation of traffic direction on six major axes in the city.
Substantial results were obtained.
Synchronizing traffic lights is one of the most efficient ways to cut delays, fuel consumption, pollution and accidents.
Synchronization consists of setting up cycles, distribution andphasing of lights along a road or within a network so that vehicles can move at a certain speed, with minimal delays caused by red lights.
The most important parametres to be taken into consideration for synchronizing a system are the cycle, which will normally be common to all the synchronized lights, the distribution of green light times and the time lag, that is, the period between the beginning of a specific phase of one signal and the beginning of that same phase at the next intersection.
In addition to these basic parameters, there are a number of conditions that must be determined as the complexity of the axis or network increases.
This whole task can be facilitated with modelling tools designed to represent and optimize each case.
The basic unit of synchronization is an axis, corridor or roadway.
Simple one-way axes can be synchronized using graphic techniques or “green banding”, usually by developing fixed programming calculated on the basis of historical data on flows and velocities.
But in the case of two-way thoroughfares with irregularly spaced intersections, it may be difficult if not impossible to set up an uninterrupted “green band” that meets demand.
Of course, the synchronization of networks is outright impossible to carry out using this method.
In the last 30 years an extraordinary development of technology has resulted in the incorporation of computers and electronics into the management of complex traffic situations.
It is now possible to control vast networks with centralized, flexible, demand-oriented systems.
Programs such as SIGOP, COMBINATION METHOD and TRANSYT have completely changed the approach to the problem, providing previously unsuspected capacities to achieve the maximum potential of transit systems.
In particular, TRANSYT has been widely tested in many countries and has become a veritable international standard for network synchronization.
Synchronization with fixed plans.
This method requires traffic light controllers with sufficient capacity to receive and run instructions from pre-established plans.
The plans are generated externally by measuring flows.
Ideally, the number of plans should equal the number of significant operational periods that can be detected.
In this case, it is essential that each controller have clocks that function with the frequency of the network or high-precision quartz clocks, so that the lag time can be programmed adequately and maintained over time.
Alternatively, a cable connection between controllers may be considered, in which case the system would function with a common clock.
Synchronization with fixed plans arose at a time when computing, communications and detection technology were not sufficient to provide solutions more suitable for complex situations of variable demand and interaction among networks.
This does not mean that this method is necessarily obsolete.
A case-by-case analysis will reveal whether a given control need can be addressed with fixed plans, meeting both demand and cost needs.
Flexible or dynamic synchronization.
Flexible, demand-driven synchronization solutions are useful in areas of intensive use, which are usually subject to unpredictable interferences.
This method is based on real-time detection of significant flows reaching each intersection.
The data are processed online by a central computer that generates updated signal cycle plans, which are then transmitted to the controller at each intersection.
The system is quite sophisticated, so in addition to a central computer programmed with appropriate software and traffic signals with controllers capable of following instructions, there must be direct communication between the central computer and the controller at each intersection.
Some of the best known options of this sort are the United Kingdom’s SCOOT and the Australian SCAT systems.
Centralized control systems.
A more technologically complex option is a centralized traffic-light control system that opens up the possibility of using different modes of control to meet given areas’ differing requirements.
This means that, for example, a dynamic control system could be used in a city’s downtown area but need not be applied to the entire traffic light system or to intersections that should not be coordinated with others because they do not form part of any functional network.
Having centralized control allows for the entire system to be administered in accordance with the needs of each part.
In addition, the following features are possible:
Direct communication with each signal controller for the purpose of regulating traffic.
Direct communication with each controller for monitoring errors.
Implementation of emergency plans for the circulation of special vehicles.
Administration of signs displaying variable information to advise drivers on the condition of the route and, in special cases, to generate detour routes.
Administration of television cameras for the direct observation of conditions in intersections or key axes.
In other words, when there is communication between the central computer and each controller, the possibilities for managing traffic are extended to aspects not necessarily linked to the traffic signal programs.
This paves the way for a more integrated management of the intersections and networks in question.
A centralized traffic control system allows for not only the synchronization of axes or networks of traffic lights, but also a comprehensive management of circulation problems using television cameras, variable driver advisory signs, remote detection of errors and management of emergencies.
In general, centralized traffic control systems are projects that yield tremendous social benefits when correctly designed and applied in cities with road congestion.
The system in Santiago has been particularly successful; its development followed a rigorous process of analysis and evaluation of alternatives, after which implementation took place in stages.
It is currently functioning and enabling drivers to achieve significant savings in travel time.
The best evidence of the effective service rendered was seen in the chaos and tremendous congestion that ensued when the computers controlling the system went down.
An important measure for giving priority to public transportation is to reserve road space for its exclusive use.
Traffic signals must be programmed in conjunction with this measure so that buses are given priority.
Clearly there is no need to modify the size and characteristics of mass transit vehicles, but improving the circulation of these vehicles does in fact expand their capacity.
This increase could attract commuters from other modes of transportation and lead to a balanced use of motorways that is more in keeping with the general interest.
Reserving space for buses is a regulatory move that is designed to correct, through the administration of the motorways, the distortion caused by an erroneous perception of congestion by individual drivers.
If motorists knew the total cost of operating their vehicles in congested conditions and if bus passengers knew as well, changes in the allocation of the transport supply would make the kind of intervention proposed here practically unnecessary, since a new balance with smaller flows would be created.
Absent this development, the authorities intervene by distributing lanes on a given thoroughfare with a view to ensuring adequate service for mass transit and incidentally eliminating friction between buses and other vehicles.
Documented international experience generally reveals significant benefits from this type of initiative, although how much of an advantage is yielded depends on the quality of the design.
In Europe the experience has been positive.
In Latin America, when signs of congestion first appeared, some major cities implemented these measures as well, with the added bonus that the majority of travel still takes place on public transit.
Some of the methods of reserving space for public transport are discussed below.
These are lanes that allow only buses to circulate, normally indicated with pavement markings.
They are characterized by the low cost of implementation, but their actual results–except in the case of lanes in which buses go against traffic–depend on the willingness of drivers to comply, and investment in prolonged law enforcement efforts is required.
It is not always possible to impose discipline in the use of these lanes; sometimes the measure is invalidated by the systematic violation of the restrictions.
In the first case, a one-way street has a bus-only lane on the right.
This is the most widely used variant.
The second example is the same except that the bus travels against the traffic, which prevents other vehicles from using the lane.
The third case shows a two-way street with bus-only lanes on the outside.
In general, right-hand bus-only lanes have the advantage of providing access to the sidewalk and are recommended when the surrounding area is characterized by retail or service businesses that generate considerable incoming and outgoing traffic.
This lane configuration tends to be violated by private vehicles that are just as attracted by the proximity to adjacent businesses (which are separated from their designated travel lanes by the bus-only prohibition) or that must enter these lanes to make right turns.
Therefore, this type of lane requires abundant and constant enforcement patrols.
Segregated bus lanes are similar to bus-only lanes in that they are exclusively for the circulation of mass transit vehicles, but the difference lies in the fact that there is a physical barrier between them and the space allocated to other vehicles.
The barrier prevents other vehicles from entering, thereby allowing buses to travel more freely.
Segregated bus lanes are a much more elaborate and costly solution than bus-only lanes.
In some cases private transport must be restricted significantly and in other cases major expropriations are required, but the net benefits that have been documented support their implementation and incorporation as a standard criterion of transport system design.
It is common for segregated lanes to be placed in the centre of the roadway in order to ensure that private vehicles have access to both sides and to facilitate right-hand turns.
This is not necessary if there is a park, railroad or other property along the side of the thoroughfare that does not require vehicle access from the street, or if there is a local road precisely for the purpose of providing such access.
Segregated lanes can be one-way or two-way, with one or more in each direction and with or without an extra passing lane where bus stops are located.
Those placed in the centre of the roadway often have bus stops placed on alternating sides to make better use of the width of the pavement.
When there are long stretches without stops, the excess room can be used for a median strip, for a narrower paved section or for special left-turn lanes.
Although these measures do yield considerable benefits for mass transit, it is important for the design to take into account the hindrances caused by the separation in the form of problems making turns, restricted access to adjacent properties and an eventual reduction in capacity for private vehicles.
The segregated bus lanes set up on the Alameda Bernardo O’Higgins in Santiago are an interesting case (see table III.5).
The avenue has two five-lane thoroughfares, and since the late 1970s more and more of them have been designated exclusively for buses.
Originally there were two bus-only lanes in each direction, labeled with markings on the pavement.
At present, buses have three lanes in each direction, separated from other traffic by physical barriers that make encroachment extremely difficult.
Bus-only streets are entire motorways devoted exclusively to mass transit.
Although from the standpoint of physical design this method seems simple in principle, requiring only adequate signposting to function, in operational terms it tends to have a major impact because of the redirection of private vehicle traffic and the limited access to adjacent properties.
Bus-only streets have been a permanent fixture in different countries for many years.
The method of establishing that exclusivity for only certain periods of time seems to be a recent innovation, however.
It has been tried in Santiago as part of the whole set of projects implemented in 2001 to reduce congestion.
This method involves granting buses an entire street for their exclusive use, but only during peak hours, after which the street returns to mixed traffic.
The streets in this programme are part of the main network in the city of Santiago.
Travel times before and after implementation are shown in table III.6.
The data show that the average savings in travel time is approximately 10%; subsequent measurements brought this figure up to as much as 13%.
Moreover, it is interesting to note that in cases such as southbound Gran Avenida, westbound Pajaritos and southbound Vicu?a Mackenna, which have light traffic during morning rush hour since they lead away from downtown, the benefits of the measure are marginal and even negative, which suggests that the bus capacity could be excessive, or that in fact there was no problem before.
Initial measurements on the alternate routes used by cars, such as Vivaceta (the alternate for Independencia) and Avenida Las Industrias (the alternate for Vicu?a Mackenna), revealed an increase in travel times.
Consequently, complementary measures such as reversible-flow lanes were adopted to accommodate private vehicles more effectively.
It can thus be concluded that preparations for implementing these measures should include mass information campaigns warning drivers and the population in general of the changes and suggesting alternate routes and detours to mitigate any negative impact that might occur.
Public transit reorganized with the equivalent of a surface subway
Segregating lanes for buses can achieve an even greater dimension if public transit on these lanes is reorganized in a system equivalent to a surface subway.
Various experiments were tried in Brazil involving not only separating bus traffic but also building stations, developing an integrated fare system and setting up transfer terminals.
These systems have given rise to a truly new mode of transportation that is very similar to a subway system, with the added bonus that the costs of putting it into service are several times lower.
A paradigmatic case that has inspired subsequent experiments elsewhere in the region is that of Curitiba, Brazil.
Begun in the 1970s, this programmed established a concept of mass transit that includes bus-only lanes and special stops, “tube stops”, with raised platforms level with the bus’s floor.
This makes it easier for passengers to board and also prevents anyone from getting on or off the vehicle at an inappropriate place.
There is also a pre-payment system, with tickets being sold before getting on the bus and integrated fares between trunk and feeder services.
The project in Curitiba was followed by others in Brazil and other countries.
A noteworthy example is that of the trolleybus system in Quito, Ecuador, which went on line in 1995 and was subsequently expanded (Arias, 2001).
It is characterized by a bus-only street with a lane 3.5 metres wide in each direction, pre-pay stations and bus-level platforms designed to minimize time spent getting on and off.
Travel time studies conducted before and after implementation of the project revealed an average of up to 50% savings.
Public transit reorganized with the equivalent of a surface subway.
Segregating lanes for buses can achieve an even greater dimension if public transit on these lanes is reorganized in a system equivalent to a surface subway.
Various experiments were tried in Brazil involving not only separating bus traffic but also building stations, developing an integrated fare system and setting up transfer terminals.
These systems have given rise to a truly new mode of transportation that is very similar to a subway system, with the added bonus that the costs of putting it into service are several times lower.
A paradigmatic case that has inspired subsequent experiments elsewhere in the region is that of Curitiba, Brazil.
Begun in the 1970s, this programme established a concept of mass transit that includes bus-only lanes and special stops, “tube stops”, with raised platforms level with the bus’s floor.
This makes it easier for passengers to board and also prevents anyone from getting on or off the vehicle at an inappropriate place.
There is also a pre-payment system, with tickets being sold before getting on the bus and integrated fares between trunk and feeder services.
The project in Curitiba was followed by others in Brazil and other countries.
A noteworthy example is that of the trolleybus system in Quito, Ecuador, which went on line in 1995 and was subsequently expanded (Arias, 2001).
It is characterized by a bus-only street with a lane 3.5 metres wide in each direction, pre-pay stations and bus-level platforms designed to minimize time spent getting on and off.
Travel time studies conducted before and after implementation of the project revealed an average of up to 50% savings.
One possibility for encouraging drivers to abandon their cars for routine trips such as commuting to work is to institute high quality multi-passenger vehicles on regular routes.
In some cities these have been called “executive buses” or “differential buses”.
Available on the market is a broad and diverse range of buses and minibuses that offer a high degree of comfort and are designed for use in tourism or business travel.
The vehicles most suitable for urban mass transit can be selected from among them.
Their potential contribution to decongestion lies in their attraction of motorists rather than conventional bus riders.
There is solid evidence that differential services offered in various Latin American cities, such as Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro, transport large numbers of passengers who used to drive in cars (ECLAC, 1995b), reducing congestion by improving the coefficient of space occupied per passenger.
Obviously an executive bus service, no matter how high the quality, is not equivalent to the service provided by a car; but under certain conditions it could be preferred on the grounds of comfort, safety, reliability and travel time to destination, considering that travel time can be used to good advantage, for reading, for example (CIS, 1995).
Although that is not the purpose, riders of conventional public transportation who are dissatisfied with it and willing to pay more for better service may also be attracted.
Relatively frequent and regular service (at least four times an hour).
Routes corresponding to existing patterns of origins and destinations.
Relatively high operating speeds, not very different from those possible in a car, but in any case higher than those of regular buses.
This means more widely spaced stops.
It would be even better if these vehicles travelled on segregated lanes or those giving priority to both conventional and executive buses, with preferences in traffic light cycles.
Comfortable vehicles with pneumatic suspension, reclinable seats, no standing passengers and trained, uniformed personnel.
Other characteristics may include ambient music and air conditioning or heating, as required by the weather.
Another important consideration for attractiveness is for business organizations to be modern and efficient, with a positive image reflected in enthusiastic customer service, expeditious ticket sales, including the possibility of subscriptions, new well-maintained buses, appropriately designed bus stops and, most significantly, following different criteria than traditional approaches (CIS, 1995).
Are executive buses viable?
In cities with a regulated transport system, it would be interesting to design these superior services and to grant concessions to operate them.
In cities with unregulated transport, executive buses may not emerge spontaneously, so some sort of impetus or facilitation may be necessary.
It is unknown, however, whether the service would be profitable and sustainable, especially since it is not known what motorists’ preferences would be or what advantages they would perceive.
In addition, routes would have to be assigned appropriately, giving preference to high-income neighbourhoods.
One way of proving their viability would be to leave it up to the market; they would simply be allowed to emerge, with a high minimum fare being established as an essential condition for truly differentiating them from regular services.
In this regard, it is helpful not to impose too many regulations with respect to bus size or specifications, frequencies, routes or other aspects.
On the contrary, entrepreneurial initiative should be given the freedom to adapt to users’ requirements.
It would also be helpful to allow differential buses to operate only Monday through Friday, with other services being offered to tourists on the weekends.
Another high-quality mass transit option is represented by collective taxis, which are widely used in many cities.
They offer fixed routes and charge a higher fare than buses.
Their advantage lies in the fact that, being cars and carrying a small number of passengers, they can travel at a higher speed.
Because they are a tight fit, however, they do not easily attract motorists and are more likely to attract people who would otherwise ride the bus.
Among the grounds frequently cited to justify building an urban railway system is that it will reduce traffic congestion.
The truth of that assertion is examined in this section.
The term “subway” includes actual subterranean systems, known in some cities as the “underground”, as well as light rail trains (LRT) and urban and suburban trains.
In the middle of the nineteenth century, London barrister Charles Pearson asserted that an underground railway would alleviate traffic congestion in the British capital, where the number of travellers was already 750,000 persons per day (Howson, 1981).
The private company that put the first London underground in service in 1863 certainly did not have the goal of alleviating congestion; however, it must have viewed that congestion and the high costs of street-level travel as economic justification for its project.
Similar justification could be found for the private Anglo Argentina tramway company’s investment in the first Latin American subway, which opened in Buenos Aires in 1913.
Later on, as public-sector participation in urban transport increased, congestion was also a consideration in the construction of subways, which were seen as a means of reducing it.
A study in Latin America in 1927 concluded that building a subway could solve S?o Paulo’s traffic problems (Hochtief, Monteral and Deconsult, 1968).
It should be noted that at that time, every passenger-kilometre produced by mass transit generated much more congestion than today, since trams represented a tremendous obstacle to non-rail traffic on shared-use streets.
Moreover, the first buses (or collective vehicles) had a low capacity per square metre of street space occupied, as well as limited acceleration and braking power.
By 1932, European urban architect Karl Brunner, referring to the situation in Santiago, stated that “traffic congestion and parking problems will remain in the city centre and within a few years building a subway, at least through the city centre, will be an urgent necessity that cannot be postponed” (Brunner, 1932).
Judging by the words of that architect, it is clear that there were already signs that the car was contributing to congestion in Santiago.
Once the car emerged as the principal cause of congestion, given its heavy presence among transportation options, it became much less likely that building a subway could solve the problem (Thomson, 1997), as will be argued in the sections below.
For example, it is estimated that by the middle of the 1920s in London, buses and trams accounted for at least 25% of the flow of traffic other than delivery or freight vehicles.
Today, in contrast, using the city of Santiago as an example, the comparable proportion would be approximately 7% during rush hour.
Where do subway passengers come from?
In Latin America, according to surveys of declared preferences conducted in many cities beginning in about 1975, for trips on a single mode of transportation many commuters prefer the subway to regular surface mass transit, if the travel time is similar or even if there is a slight disadvantage in terms of fare.
Before that time, although passenger preferences are not known due to the lack of data, very few would not have preferred travelling on a new subway to riding on the rudimentary, noisy buses, trams or multi-passenger vehicles of the time.
Therefore, in the past, even more than now, a new subway would have attracted large numbers of former mass transit riders.
On the other hand, the car is preferred to the subway if travel time is the same, both because of its subjective attributes and due to its flexibility, privacy, ability to carry cargo, protection from the weather and other considerations.
Consequently, a recently opened subway is much more attractive for people who used to ride the bus than for motorists.
One of the most comprehensive studies on mass transit in cities in developing countries concluded that, typically, immediately after a subway begins operating, 81% of its passengers are former bus riders, 16% are people who simply did not travel on the axis and only 3% have switched from cars or motorbikes on the axis (Allport and Thomson, 1990).
As a result, it is clear that there is a direct correlation between the significance of mass transit vehicles in the flow of traffic and the direct impact of the subway on congestion.
Empirical evidence suggests that Latin American subways that came on line in recent decades have had a minimal impact on traffic congestion.
For example, in S?o Paulo it was found that “bus traffic fell by 500 per hour in each direction in the corridors in question, and although congestion was reduced at first, it later returned to serious levels”.
In Santiago, “congestion remained serious on the principal east-west axis and bus traffic stayed near the maximum level possible”.
 In Porto Alegre, “there was no serious congestion before or after the opening of the suburban train system”; and in Mexico, “congestion caused by motor vehicles remained heavy, and although bus speeds were adequate, that was more attributable to the implementation of segregated lanes than to the subway” (Allport and J.Thomson, 1990).
Evidence from cities in other regions is generally similar (I.Thomson, 1997).
There have been cases in which modernized trolley or LRT systems have attracted significant numbers of motorists; this was true in Sheffield, where an exceptional 22% of passengers on the new trolley system had been commuting by car before (Hass-Klau and others, 2000).
There is no guarantee, however, that the road space they free up will not be taken over by other drivers.
Stories in the technical-popular press indicate that the new tram system in Croydon, a suburb south of London, has cut parking in the downtown area by 6%, while at the same time sales in businesses located there have climbed 11%.
An explanation for subways’ inability to reduce congestion.
In analysing what has happened, the following conclusions can be drawn:
The opening of the subway attracts many former mass transit passengers and just a few motorists;
The transfer from mass transit reduces the demand for that mode and at least in the medium term, will reduce the flow of buses on the corridor, especially during rush hour, unless bus companies continue operating as they did before even with lower demand (this seems to have happened in Santiago);
The road space freed up during peak hours is used by motorists who prior to the opening of the subway left a little earlier or a little later in order to avoid the worst congestion of rush hour.
As a result, in the medium term, speeds at peak hours are about the same as they were before the subway came on line; and
The few motorists who switch to the subway free up parking spaces, especially downtown, which are taken by other citizens switching from public transit to cars, though not necessarily on the axis of the recently opened subway.
In cases of very little use of private transportation, as was true 100 years ago, the situation could be different.
The road space freed up by the shift mentioned in the second point would remain unused (without counting a small redistribution in time of trips on mass transit), which would nullify the consequence identified in the third point; the process identified in the fourth point would also be of little or no significance.
It is worth noting that the fact that subways do not reduce congestion during rush hour does not mean that they cannot be beneficial from a socioeconomic point of view.
First, travel time is reduced for people switching from bus to subway; second, by making rush hour shorter, more citizens are able to travel at times that suit them better, rather than at times when there is less congestion.
Consequences of denser land use.
In the medium term, the subway’s contribution to solving the congestion problem could actually be negative because of its impact on land use, influenced by building regulations adopted by many municipal authorities throughout Latin America.
Undoubtedly, the subway improves access to areas near stations and therefore encourages greater residential and especially commercial density.
That increased density does not always occur, as it also depends on other factors; it is likely to occur in neighborhoods that are attractive from a city planning standpoint and is evident in districts such as Chaca?to in Caracas and Providencia in Santiago.
In these areas, the greater accessibility created by the subway leads to the construction of office buildings that workers can reach easily on subway trains.
The regulations prevailing in many Latin American municipalities require, however, that these buildings have a minimum number of parking spaces per square metre of floorspace.
This creates a perverse situation, in which many office workers, taking advantage of the parking spaces provided by municipal decree, do not use the subway but drive instead.
In Santiago, the higher density of trips at peak hours within the subway’s sphere of influence can be calculated.
How can subways help reduce congestion?
The fact that subways have rarely reduced traffic congestion, at least since the beginning of the era of massive car use, does not mean this is impossible.
The measures that would have to be taken to maximize their contribution in this regard include the following:
When a new subway line begins operating, the supply of parking spaces in areas near stations should be reduced by the number of people switching from car to subway; and
Municipal regulations governing parking at commercial buildings should be revised so that those built near subway stations should have a maximum limit rather than a minimum number of parking spaces per square meter.
Even if these measures are taken, the impact of the subway during rush hour would be limited by motorists’ changing their travel schedules, which is impossible to control.
Subways are no doubt part of a number of measures aimed at improving the flow of traffic, which necessarily must include the availability of attractive mass transit systems.
Subways are not enough by themselves to bring about a reduction in congestion, however.
The measures achieve results.
Supply-side measures in general expand transport capacity, achieving a certain reduction in congestion.
In some cases the effect on congestion is marked, as is the case with synchronization of traffic signals, segregated lanes for buses and reversible-flow lanes.
Specifically, increases in the average speed of circulation and low travel times and operating costs are obtained.
Lower toxic gas emissions.
Higher travel speeds mean a reduction in total emissions of toxic gases, which helps improve the environment.
Savings in public transit fleet.
The higher travel speed of buses allows them to carry the same number of passengers in a smaller number of vehicles.
This reduces the total cost of the fleet, with the resultant lower fares, which is of particular benefit to low-income travelers who must invest a major share of their income in transportation.
Greater social equity.
Along with lower fares, shorter travel time for buses improves their riders’ quality of life, and most riders are in the social strata with the least power.
Some measures can be implemented at low to moderate cost
Several supply-side measures are affordable for most municipalities in big cities.
That is true of redesigned intersections, marking lanes and erecting signs and instituting reversible-flow lanes.
Eventually, segregated lanes may be financed through franchising.
Retention of public transportation users
The measures related to improving public transportation increase its attractiveness and reduce the pressure to switch to motor vehicles.
To the extent that cities in developing regions manage to maintain the high proportion of trips still carried out on mass transit, which fluctuates between 50% and 80%, the most serious congestion problems can be avoided.
A quality public transit system discourages urban sprawl
If public transportation is adequate, there are advantages to running businesses or living near its routes, which reduces the pressure to move to the suburbs where commuters depend on cars.
Some measures are costly.
Centralized synchronization of traffic signals, though highly effective, iscostly.
The same is true of the reorganization of public transit into a system equivalent to a surface subway.
These projects may require financial support from the national government, which is also usually the case with subways.
Difficulties in adapting to reversible-flow lanes
Reversible-flow lanes require that traffic flowing in the opposite direction be diverted.
This may result in longer travel times and there may be a certain amount of congestion.
The measure can cause confusion among drivers and an increase in accidents, so a solid signposting and publicity programme must be put in place.
Some degree of resistance on the part of drivers should not be ruled out.
Problems with segregated lanes in the centre of the roadway.
Pedestrians must be given safe access to bus stops, and signs must be posted with instructions on how to cross lanes to the left.
Problems with segregated lanes at the side of the roadway.
The issue of making right turns and gaining access to properties located along the length of the roadway must be resolved.
Problems with the introduction of new technologies.
Centralized control of traffic signals requires a complex technology system that is available in few places.
The reorganization of public transportation into a system similar to a surface subway also demands new technologies for controlling traffic and possibly integrating fares with other bus lines, with the corresponding system of distributing revenues among the various players, plus some kind of smart ticket.
The new technologies require training for those who are going to operate the systems, and passengers also must adapt.
Need to create new institutions
A service similar to a surface subway needs a new set of institutions capable of running the complex system, in which various components come together (transport infrastructure and its relationship with the network of streets and roads, vehicles and their operation and control, ticket sales and the distribution of revenues, general management, public relations and others).
The interests of all these institutions must be considered.
A service similar to a surface subway is a complex measure to implement, not only because of the difficulties inherent in installing a new system, but also because of the resistance to change that characterizes the players involved in the previous system.
In particular, the reaction of bus companies, which may not be in a position to become integrated into the new arrangement, must also be taken into account, and it cannot be forgotten that passengers must also incorporate new practices in their travel.
Transport supply should be viewed as a system, and it must be improved and adapted constantly.
Better results can be expected from the simultaneous and progressive intervention in a broad range of facets that make up the transportation system, such as the appropriate marking and maintenance of streets, the synchronization of traffic signals, the rationalization of public transit and many others.
In other words, a number of feasible measures must be put into practice with a view to expanding capacity by improving the management and productivity of the existing infrastructure.
Of all measures, the most promising ones seem to be the synchronization of traffic lights and the establishment of segregated bus lanes, along with the corresponding reorganization of public transit.
Improving and even widening streets is a potentially useful measure, provided that negative effects on habitability and quality of life can be avoided.
In addition, it should be accompanied by others aimed at preventing the rapid clogging of these streets, or the mere shift of the congestion to a few blocks away.
Simply adding more road infrastructure does not eliminate congestion, however, and it is important to resist succumbing to the illusion that it can be solved with urban freeways, tunnels and viaducts.
In fact, these measures may even exacerbate the situation.
Experience shows that in Los Angeles and other major metropolitan areas that built numerous urban freeways, they were so attractive for cars that congestion became much more unmanageable.
In any case, improving the utilization of the supply does not by itself account for the complex realities associated with congestion.
Urban motorways, especially in city centres, do not have sufficient capacity to support the indiscriminate use of private motor vehicles and they never will, even if all the financially, environmentally and politically feasible measures are taken to expand them.
Thus, it is necessary to incorporate demand-side measures to resolve the imbalances in the use of the infrastructure and achieve a balance acceptable to the community.
What is transport demand?
Transport demand is a response to the need or desire to transport persons and goods from one place to another.
Activities take place in different places around the city, involving multiple trips to come and go, for example, from home to work or school, to go shopping, attend cultural, social, or recreational events, or others.
To make better use of the day, many work and educational activities begin early in the morning, which results in a huge accumulation of journeys during relatively brief periods of time.
This situation is repeated in the afternoon at the end of the workday, although it is generally less marked.
Although the essence of this demand is the mobilization of persons or things, it also has a traffic dimension, in terms of volumes of vehicles moving along the public roadways to carry out these objectives.
The aforementioned concentrations of trips in the morning and afternoon generate an increase in the volume of traffic, known as peak times or rush hour, which translates into congestion on different streets and during different periods.
What is transport demand?
Transport demand is a response to the need or desire to transport persons and goods from one place to another.
Activities take place in different places around the city, involving multiple trips to come and go, for example, from home to work or school, to go shopping, attend cultural, social, or recreational events, or others.
To make better use of the day, many work and educational activities begin early in the morning, which results in a huge accumulation of journeys during relatively brief periods of time.
This situation is repeated in the afternoon at the end of the workday, although it is generally less marked.
Although the essence of this demand is the mobilization of persons or things, it also has a traffic dimension, in terms of volumes of vehicles moving along the public roadways to carry out these objectives.
The aforementioned concentrations of trips in the morning and afternoon generate an increase in the volume of traffic, known as peak times or rush hour, which translates into congestion on different streets and during different periods.
Be inappropriate insofar as it meant a loss of the advantages to be gained from such trips, along with the potential suppression of the activities people wish to carry out.
In the medium and long terms, however, modern communication technologies such as Internet, email and mobile telephony, or the modification of land use can help reduce the need to travel, with the resultant easing of congestion.
Completely eliminating cars from city centres seems unviable and unnecessary.
Demand-side measures should focus primarily on modifying the distribution of transportation modes or the type of vehicles used during peak times and on shifting some trips to times of lighter traffic.
Using cars less during rush hour in fact expands the availability of roadway space, which translates into increased speeds and shorter travel times for all vehicles, obviously including public transit vehicles.
According to this reasoning, congestion could be cut significantly if it were possible to convince a large number of motorists to take mass transit or use non-motorized methods when they travel to heavily congested areas or go during periods of heavy congestion, or to change the times of their trips.
In other words, it is a question of inducing changes in behaviour that would result in the temporary replacement of the car.
Demand-side measures that prevent congestion
There are many different demand-side actions that can be useful in easing congestion.
Several methods are aimed at changing driving habits by identifying convenient alternatives.
These methods attempt to instill in motorists a strong conviction that will lead them to make lasting changes in behaviour, such as voluntarily restricting the use of the car (see section F.1 of this chapter).
Other methods are designed to induce changes in behaviour through coercion or incentives/disincentives.
Coercive measures are regulatory in nature and they impose restrictions on drivers.
Incentives, in contrast, provide advantages or economic rewards for those who adopt certain behaviours, and disincentives exact a price for engaging in certain activities (GTZ, 2001).
Economic measures can seem less effective and in some cases are reputed to be socially inequitable, although they may enjoy more acceptance among drivers.
Regulatory measures, on the other hand, are vulnerable.
Both types of measure should be considered so that the best overall result can be obtained.
A variety of measures can contribute to the desired change in transportation habits to mitigate congestion.
In addition, the chapter presents reflections on the relationship between land use and congestion in the long run.
Parking is obviously an indispensable element of any road transport system.
Cars, in particular, are not designed for perpetual motion; they make certain specific trips, depending on the driver’s intent.
After the journey is completed, or after a sequence of journeys, when the driver no longer needs to travel, the vehicle rests in place, and it must necessarily occupy a space that is therefore eliminated from any alternative use.
This fact means that managing parking can be a tool for regulating transit and alleviating congestion.
The presence or absence of parking spaces and the cost thereof, can facilitate or hinder access by car, especially on routes where the driver must find an accessible place to leave his car.
A shortage of parking near a given destination or a high price for parking is in fact a disincentive for using private vehicles in many cases; and ample availability of parking has the reverse effect.
A better balance must be achieved between accessibility and limitations on the use of cars.
This may mean that public transportation must be improved, or that restrictive measures must be implemented gradually.
Controlling parking consists of regulating the availability of parking places in various parts of the city with a view to relieving congestion.
Controlling parking by restricting the number of spaces available or charging for their use has long been recognized as one of the most effective elements in any strategy for reducing car use (Enoch, 2002).
In this way, the message is conveyed that not all car trips at all times are good for society.
One option for easing congestion is to discourage car trips to downtown areas during peak hours.
Given that more than half of journeys at those times are for going to work, there is an interesting potential for attacking congestion through actions to discourage or hinder long-term parking in or near areas with a large concentration of workplaces.
Restrictions can encourage commuters to switch to high occupancy vehicles or to shift their travel to off hours.
Moreover, providing intermediate parking places to enable commuters to combine car travel with public transit can also help alleviate congestion.
It should be emphasized that controlling parking is not intended to prohibit the use of cars, much less to hamper the development of urban activities.
Therefore, it is necessary to balance the appropriate provision of parking in uncongested areas with certain limitations on parking in congested areas, in order to achieve the best results for the development of a city.
The experiences of several different countries have shown that parking regulations and proper enforcement of them can yield positive results and can play an important role in reducing the use of private cars.
In any case, measures should be differentiated according to the type of parking, as shown below.
Free or unrestricted on-street parking.
Regulated or paid on-street parking.
Paid off-street parking.
Free off-street parking.
The possibilities for mitigating congestion using the aforementioned methods are discussed below.
Free or unrestricted on-street parking
Drivers like to park on the street, since in many cases this is a reasonable solution near a specific destination, especially if it is free.
Unfortunately, the space thus occupied is taken out of circulation for the entire time the vehicle remains there.
This reduces the capacity of the street and can become critical on heavily traveled arteries, particularly at rush hour.
As the name suggests, this measure consists of banning parking at certain times and places.
The ban virtually rescues a lane for vehicles in circulation, at the cost of inconveniencing the relatively few vehicles that might be parked there.
An additional lane can allow some 1500 vehicles to pass through each hour, greatly enhancing the flow of traffic on high-demand thoroughfares and drastically reducing congestion.
The most noteworthy aspect is that this roadway space is already available and can be freed up with measures that transport authorities can readily implement.
The prohibition of on-street parking is justified only in areas where it can make an effective contribution.
It is appropriate on streets where the volume of traffic is such that more space is needed to ease the flow.
This is generally true of major avenues and streets in city centres.
The ban can be permanent on main avenues, on one or both sides; and it can be temporary on other streets, applicable only on workdays (Monday through Friday or Saturday morning), excluding nighttime hours.
In contrast, it makes no sense to impose such a ban on neighbourhood streets.
One case that should be noted is stopping for loading and unloading, which should be banned at peak hours and expressly allowed during times when traffic is light.
This measure is generally taken at the municipal level and it can enjoy a reasonable degree of citizen support.
The greatest resistance to implementing it may come from residents who do not have their own parking spaces; in that case, allowing nighttime parking should be considered where feasible.
As in so many other cases, it is not enough just to adopt the ban (OECD, 1981).
The parking ban must be posted appropriately with conventional signs, and when the measure is adopted it must be widely publicized so that no one can plead ignorance.
At any rate, it is preferable to win citizen support, since voluntary compliance makes it much easier to achieve the objectives.
For that reason, explaining the goal of the measure is essential.
All things considered, the measure must be strictly enforced and violations should result in real penalties.
In this regard, it is important to have a mechanism in place, especially during times of peak demand, that will guarantee a high probability that violators will be discovered.
This means having an appropriate number of inspectors and a good patrol system.
In addition, an objective schedule of penalties and a good enforcement system must be adopted.
Absent effective controls, illegal parking will abound.
Provisions that do not have a working enforcement system soon become dead letter.
In Washington, D.C., where parking regulations were flouted routinely, an enforcement system with wheel clamps and tow trucks met with initial resistance, but later it was accepted and the system was eventually privatized (MINTRATEL, 1995).
A similar experience has been reported in Guatemala City.
To be successful, a parking ban must be part of a set of measures, among which improved public transportation should be considered.
In addition, it is important to have parking places available in the areas surrounding the restricted zones so that those who want or need to go there by car will have somewhere to park.
Regulated or paid on-street parking
If a ban is justified on heavily travelled streets, on many other streets where parking is allowed, it should be regulated by means of metres and other methods of rationalizing demand.
The purpose is to make it likely that a space will be found when needed and if parking has to be paid for, to make the driver assume the cost to society of providing the space.
In city centres, on-street parking should be short-term.
This allows access for personal business or shopping and prevents parking by commuters, who are the ones most likely to be travelling at rush hour.
Payment of a fee should be the primary method of rationalizing regulated on-street parking and it provides the added advantage of generating revenues for the municipality.
It may be appropriate to set maximum limits on parking time, although charging a fee is itself a deterrent to long stays.
A less stringent regulation is to allow free parking that is severely limited in time, which would ensure rotation.
Another method is to reserve spaces for national or foreign dignitaries’ vehicles, although that could be considered discriminatory and might meet with resistance.
No matter what method is used, appropriate signs and symbols should be posted at the location to convey the restrictions clearly.
Regulating on-street parking is generally a municipal function and it may enjoy reasonable public support.
The cost of implementation is normally affordable with funding from the municipal budget or franchising, and costs can be offset by fees.
There are different ways of implementing controls.
A simple option for limiting time, regardless of whether the on-street parking is paid or free, is to use a standardized document displayed visibly within the vehicle that indicates the authorized parking time.
The sale of parking permits for specific periods is one such measure.
Improvements in technology have reduced the vulnerability that originally characterized these systems.
Parking metres are effective ways to regulate authorized on-street parking.
These devices have a wide range of features (they can be simple clocks, or they may have mechanical or electronic means of collecting fees manually or automatically, in the form of coins or cards).
It is preferable for the metres to be able to limit the total time vehicles are allowed to remain parked.
In countries with low-cost labour or high rates of unemployment, it is possible to operate parking systems with human collectors equipped with devices that can record parking time.
In addition to creating sources of formal employment, this method makes it possible to charge for the exact time of use, without the need for a minimum fee for parking.
As a result, non-payment for time exceeding the prepaid amount can be avoided.
Moreover, the collector is in fact an enforcement officer and the use of informal “vehicle watchers” can thus be eliminated.
Franchising the parking metre operation has the advantage of reducing the risks inherent in the business, especially with respect to collecting fees.
It also avoids the expansion of the municipal payroll.
Another similar option is to establish a decentralized city-owned corporation.
A number of municipal jurisdictions in Santiago, Chile have contracted with businesses to carry out on-street parking enforcement using human collectors equipped with hand-held electronic meters that can also issue a receipt for the driver.
During times of high unemployment, this measure has resulted not only in a successful regulation of the supply of on-street parking, but it has also created formal jobs.
In addition, about 4,400 underground parking spaces have been built, eliminating 5,500 parking spaces on the street.
A law passed in 1997 authorized municipalities to grant concessions on the subsoil of their jurisdictions as a means of clearing the streets and reducing pollution.
The concessions are granted after approval by the Ministry of Housing and City Planning (MINVU) and require the elimination of surface parking spaces amounting to at least 120% of the authorized underground spaces.
In the area surrounding the new parking structure (200 to 500 metres away), on-street parking is prohibited in order to increase the space available for circulation and also prevent competition with nearby parking.
How much to charge?
Charging a fee for a scarce good in high demand is a mechanism aimed at ensuring that drivers pay the costs incurred by society, and no less than the true cost should be paid.
Furthermore, the fee should be whatever is necessary to rationalize use in accordance with demand, which means that it may be a fixed amount or one that varies by time of day.
The costs of adapting the location for parking (signposting and equipment) and operating the parking system, including, of course, the salaries of workers and inspectors, in order to self-finance and eventually franchise the system.
To the extent that this does not occur (as is sometimes the case), drivers will receive an implicit subsidy, with the consequent overuse.
The value of the right to occupy public space for a period of time; this can be calculated on the basis of the costs that congestion imposes on vehicles in circulation because they do not have the full width of the pavement available to them (Valenzuela and G?lvez, 1995).
In other words, without parking, a certain speed of travel prevails, with the commensurate level of consumption, whereas with parking spaces on the street, these factors are different; the parking fee can be calculated as the difference between the two, which can give rise to differential fees throughout the day.
In addition, it is recommended that parking metre rates be higher than the fees charged for underground parking so as to encourage the latter, since it is preferable to take parked vehicles off the street.
Human collectors can be the first line of defence in a control system, and they should be complemented by a group of supervisors.
In the case of direct payment to parking metres, inspectors should be assigned (one inspector for every 100 to 150 spaces) to prevent non-payment.
There is no doubt that franchising the parking metre business is the most effective collection system.
An important element in the proper functioning of on-street parking is consistent enforcement in a given area.
If metred parking spaces are adequately patrolled and nearby areas where parking is banned are not patrolled, there will be a great risk of illegal parking.
Prohibiting the use of regulated parking spaces during the morning rush hour is one way of expanding efforts to alleviate congestion.
This measure serves the purpose of facilitating the flow of traffic and prevents commuter parking.
Drivers who would otherwise park there must change their mode of transportation or travel during off hours, thus easing the heaviest flows of traffic.
If current parking concessions are affected by this measure, appropriate compensation must be considered.
It is logical that most parking will be off-street, either on private lots or on public land off of the pavement.
Not only is it impossible for the streets to provide enough room for all vehicles to park, their primary function is not parking.
Paid off-street parking can be underground, in parking structures, or above ground.
Sometimes above-ground parking is set up haphazardly on vacant lots; from a city planning standpoint, it would be a good idea to require the upgrading of such lots.
One aspect that merits attention is access, as entrances and exits should not be a source of congestion; any queuing that results should take place outside the lanes of the main thoroughfare.
Off-street parking has the advantage of reducing pressure for on-street parking and can be a commercial business venture.
High-rise or underground parking structures involve huge investments, but they can be profitable with the collection of fees.
They may be the result of private initiative or the concession of surface space (on public land off the street) or the public subsoil (under avenues, plazas, parks and other properties, for example).
Highinvestment concessions tend to go hand in hand with the prohibition of parking on all streets within a certain radius of blocks to prevent the erosion of demand.
How the concession is structured, including what agency grants the concession, depends on each country’s institutions.
These concessions may or may not fall within the purview of the municipal government.
Drivers accustomed to parking at low cost may express a certain amount of resistance.
In Munich, Germany, a comprehensive parking policy was adopted for the entire city, with flexible fees depending on the occupancy level.
An important line of action was to eliminate 1,200 long-term downtown public parking spaces (operated by franchises or by the municipal government) in order to raise the price of private long-term parking.
Large stores have limited parking and it is expensive; moreover, like service centres, stores must develop their own access to public transit stations.
At the same time, actions were taken to expand mass transit capability and improve the mix of vehicles on public roadways, curbing the aggressiveness of car drivers through “traffic calming” measures on the streets.
In Paris, France, the number of long-term parking spaces was also limited in the city centre by eliminating 3,500 spaces.
Parking fees were raised and a unified fare system was implemented for parking and mass transit.
The capacity of the beltway was also improved, with an underground motorway built on the south/ southeast stretch.
Paid off-street parking can also play a role in controlling congestion.
Of course it allows for the elimination of on-street parking.
Payment is also an incentive for rationalizing the use of the car, especially in the case of long-term parking.
It must be noted that it is feasible to charge municipal fees, either for using public land or for operating a business, in order to bring rates to appropriate levels.
A complementary method of reducing the availability of long-term parking would be to prohibit entry into paid parking areas during morning rush hour.
This would require paying compensation to parking companies for lost revenues.
Initial indications are that it is more appropriate to levy a tax so that the amount of the parking fee would discourage commuters from leaving their cars parked for an entire workday.
A 1998 study analysed various measures for easing congestion in London, including several proposals related to parking.
One was to raise the fee for short-term parking in the city centre.
It was estimated that a 200% hike would reduce traffic by 4%; for reasons of equity, parking fees in other commercial areas competing with downtown businesses would be raised as well.
Another proposal was to raise long-term public parking rates by 200%, which would reduce traffic by 6%.
The imposition of a 5,000-pound yearly tax on every private non-residential (PNR) parking space would stem traffic flows by 13%.
The effect would be most notable in the outer reaches of the city, where a large number of such spaces are currently available at low rates.
Various institutions offer free parking to enhance their operations.
Bearing in mind at all times that the problem is most acute in city centres during rush hour, the institutions can be classified based on their impact on congestion.
Providing free parking for customers may be a vital necessity for the functioning of shopping centres and other entities where the public goes to conduct transactions or business, such as medical centres, payment offices for utilities, banks and various public and private enterprises.
Individuals may stay a short time at these locations, and much of their business (though not necessarily the majority) is conducted during off hours anyway.
Along with having appropriately designed entrances and exits, in congested areas it may be possible for these entities to be closed for business at the height of the morning rush hour.
Except for medical establishments, it may be feasible to regulate business hours in this manner with a view to eliminating or limiting service during peak traffic times.
Any other type of restriction, such as charging a fee proportional to the establishment’s surface area, would meet with great resistance and might inhibit the development of businesses and institutions in the area in question.
Company-provided employee parking is a different matter, since travel to workplaces occurs primarily during rush hour.
These perquisites may be offered to attract qualified employees or may be the subject of collective bargaining agreements.
Free student parking provided by institutions of higher learning has a similar effect.
One byproduct is that parking facilities at schools and workplaces stimulate urban sprawl, since they make it possible to live in places not served by public transit.
Furthermore, public may never reach these low-density residential areas.
Thus, car-dependency is increased, with an even greater impact on congestion.
Urban sprawl also increases the cost of running the city because basic service networks must expand outward and travel distances and costs grow accordingly.
A complete ban on entry during the morning rush hour may be an unviable and overly drastic alternative for alleviating congestion.
A more feasible option would be to charge the entity in question a fee or tax for every parking space provided.
This cost could be passed on to students, but not to employees.
Another option is to limit the number of parking spaces that can be provided, obviously to less than the number of employees.
In both cases, if public transportation is deemed inadequate, the establishment can provide collective transportation or encourage carpooling.
It can also try to introduce flexible work or class schedules so that not everyone arrives at the same time.
This type of regulation affects property rights, so it cannot be introduced by a municipality on its own; an ordinance authorizing the restrictions may be required.
These measures would undoubtedly meet with strong opposition in the entities in question.
A number of English companies are paying their employees to give up the right to park on company property.
The hospitals in Derriford and Southampton, Heathrow Airport, the telecommunications firms Orange in Bristol and Vodafone in Newbury and the pharmaceutical company Pfizer’s plants in Kent and Reigate all have plans to implement this measure.
They are applying different schemes, ranging from a single “expropriation” fee for the right to park, to daily compensation payments, to annual or monthly payments to workers who arrive at work by any means other than a car.
The daily payments fluctuate from two to five pounds and the monthly payments are in the range of 80 pounds.
This measure suits the companies’ interests, as it is much more expensive for them to provide parking spaces, particularly if they decide to expand their facilities or move to another site.
The most successful schemes have been the most flexible ones, involving a payment for every day the parking is not utilized; more than one-third of the employees agree to leave their cars at home under such circumstances.
The downside is that these plans are more costly to administer.
In contrast, few employees have been interested in the schemes for longer terms.
The programme could be even more effective if the income from these payments were tax-exempt.
Complementary actions that have been helpful are establishing minibus routes, subsidizing the use of public transit, facilities for cyclists and a carpooling database.
In Santa Monica, California, a state law was passed in 1992 requiring companies with more than 50 employees located on the southern coast of the state to offer employees who are eligible for free or subsidized parking a bonus for declining to use it.
The law also applies to leased off-site parking, and the bonus must be equal to the amount previously charged for parking.
A 1998 law made these payments tax-exempt for employers and employees alike.
Employees may reject the offer and continue to use the company parking, or accept it and travel by other means or park at their own expense.
This measure has been useful for reducing traffic and emissions.
Parking at residential developments is indispensable, and there must be enough space so that vehicles are not parked on the street.
Steps must also be taken, however, to design entrances and exits in a way that prevents traffic jams.
Another possibility for easing congestion stems from the combined use of cars in uncongested areas and public transportation on the rest of the journey.
This allows the car to be used only on the part of the route where the costs to the driver are not significantly different from the costs to society. One prerequisite for this solution is to provide intermediary parking facilities.
The travel scheme would be as follows (OECD, 1981).
Travel by private car in outlying areas, where there is little or no public transit, for example, because any fares collected would not pay for the cost of serving remote areas with low occupancy rates.
Car parks outside the city centre near a public transit station or stop.
Utilization of some form of public transportation to reach the city centre, with appropriate and reliable service, hopefully faster than travelling by private car, so as to obviate the need to find parking downtown.
The success of an intermediary parking system depends on various factors, as indicated below (OECD, 1981).
They must be located near high quality public transit lines that operate at adequate frequencies and speed and offer comfortable seats and sufficient capacity.
They must be clearly accessible, even by those not familiar with the road network.
Their entry and exit capacity must be sufficient during peak hours.
There must be a high likelihood of finding a free space, as lengthy searches may cause the driver on his way to work to continue the journey by car.
The foot path from the parking area to the public transit station should be short and, if possible, covered.
Parking fees and public transit fares should compare favorably with the cost of making the entire journey by car.
The driver must be assured that his vehicle will not be at risk for theft or vandalism.
The intermediary parking system must be advertised in promotional campaigns, and signs pointing to the car park should be posted on the roadway.
Intermediary parking has been established in many urban areas in the United States, including Baltimore, Boston, Hartford, Portland, Seattle and Washington, D.C.
The Baltimore region has seven free car parks for a total of 1,770 spaces, served by express or local bus lines.
Intermediary car parks in the Boston region are linked to rapid transit lines (express bus or train) for commuting to work.
The Hartford and Portland regions have numerous intermediary car parks.
In Hartford there are about 30 parks with express bus service and another 84 established for carpooling.
In Portland there are 73 free car parks served by mass transit.
The TriMet, the mass transit authority, does not own any of these car parks, but makes use of parking spaces made available free by churches, shopping centres and suburban municipalities.
Seattle has six permanent intermediary car parks owned by the transit system and 15 part-time parks provided by shopping centres or churches.
All of them offer free parking and are served by mass transit lines.
Washington, D.C. has three intermediary stations with bus service and six located near subway stations.
A fee is charged for parking.
Controlling parking is one of many tools available for combating vehicular congestion.
Whether parking is prohibited, the private cost of parking at various facilities is raised, or shuttling between car and public transit is facilitated, a certain improvement in congestion is achieved on principal avenues and in city centres by freeing up space on the roadway for the flow of traffic.
Moreover, during peak hours travelers shift from cars to public transit or put off their trips until off hours.
The results include higher average travel speeds, with the consequent reductions in travel time and operating costs.
These results have been observed in many cities that have applied the measure.
Higher travel speeds reduce total toxic gas emissions, which helps improve the environment.
The costs of implementing a ban on parking are relatively low–informing the public, posting signs, patrolling and enforcing–unless businesses with contractual rights must be compensated, as is the case with parking concessions that lose business during certain hours.
If parking structures have to be built, the costs may be moderate for surface structures, but very high for underground or high-rise structures.
The advantage is that they can be privately financed by granting concessions.
Charging for parking is a reflection of the sound economic principle that the costs imposed on society should be defrayed, be they for implementation, for land allocated to parking, or for congestion caused directly by the reduced available road surface or indirectly by rush hour car travel.
Restricting parking in downtown areas during peak hours sends a positive message that tends to limit explosive urban development.
Indeed, if it is difficult or impossible to find parking when driving to work, the use of public transportation has to be accepted, or the employee must live relatively close to the workplace, which will dampen the urge to move to the suburbs for more than a few people.
A more compact city pays lower costs for urban development, transportation and utilities.
People have a strong desire to travel by car and parking restrictions make that difficult, especially during rush hour.
This can cause a certain amount of resistance.
The more extensive the measure, the greater the resistance, especially if companies and businesses see access to their facilities threatened.
Opposition can also come from municipal authorities, for the same reason.
Residents of an area where parking is restricted must have access to their homes, so a system must be designed to make that possible.
Outsiders may take undue advantage of that access, however.
To the extent that businesses lose acquired rights, they must be compensated in the amount of the damage.
For example, a commercial venture or a franchisee may lose revenue from parking fees when parking restrictions are imposed.
Radical parking restrictions, especially downtown, can threaten the area’s vitality.
Throughout the city there must be reasonably appropriate parking spaces for the development of various activities.
The design of parking facilities must ensure that i) there is access to the city centre; ii) activities are not hampered in areas with restricted parking; and iii) the quality of the ambient area is maintained.
Unfortunately, the results of studies and models developed to date are not conclusive with regard to the magnitude of the impact that parking limitations may have on business and commercial activity and employment in the city centre.
Since there appears to be some correlation, however, complementary measures should always be adopted for a commensurate enhancement of public transportation (Still and Simmonds, 2000).
Traffic has definite peak periods when large numbers of trips are made.
This phenomenon is generally attributable to the fact that at the beginning of the day there is a lot of activity, causing many people to travel nearly simultaneously to work or school.
A similar phenomenon, though less marked, occurs in the afternoon when the work and business day ends.
Consequently, congestion can be relieved to the extent that it is feasible to spread the start time of different schedules over a longer period.
Flex time involves establishing different starting and ending times for the various activities that go on in large cities, such as work, business, school, college and the like, so that each activity begins at a different time than the others.
The purpose of this measure is to avoid very definite peak times by staggering journeys over a longer period of time.
In this manner, the time of greatest demand for the roadway system is spread out and the streets are less congested.
Obviously, the best results are obtained when rush hour trips are distributed over a longer period time.
The reorganization of schedules depends directly on the nature of activities in each city; in any case, care should be taken not to interfere with the normal functioning of the activities subject to modification.
Every city has different business activities, an educational system that may or may not have evenly staggered schedules and a culture that may or may not facilitate the application of this measure.
There is a tendency for schools to start earlier than most jobs, since parents like to be able to drop off their children on the way to work.
Higher education, business and most private activities can be scheduled more flexibly.
One definite option is to have different starting times for work in different sectors, such as the public sector, the private sector, banking and construction.
Sometimes this occurs spontaneously, as construction tends to begin as soon as the sun rises.
The public sector, in turn, can start earlier or later, depending on national idiosyncrasies or the number of hours offices are open—if they are open for six hours, it is feasible to schedule the entire workday before lunch.
Bank customers can conduct their business on the Internet, so there is no need for banks to open early.
Another possibility is to encourage businesses to allow employees to work flexible hours wherever feasible.
In other words, each employee would choose his own times for arriving and departing, as long as the required number of hours is worked and they are present when all employees are needed for meetings or other joint activities.
Telecommuting, taking advantage of modern communications technology, the Internet, email and other innovations, can also help spread out schedules.
In any event, it must be acknowledged that the private sector lends itself better to such creative solutions.
Some case studies demonstrate the validity of flex time as a means of reducing congestion (Fernandes, 1985).
During the Second World War, Philadelphia and other U.S.cities pioneered the implementation of staggered schedules to ease the demand for public transportation to business centres during peak hours.
Several U.S.cities, as well as Toronto and Ottawa (Canada) and Paris (France) have implemented programmes that have been positively evaluated from various points of view, such as reducing the number of rush hour trips, cutting travel times and greater comfort on public transportation (Fernandes, 1985).
Numerous businesses in developed countries, including some public agencies, have flexible work hours that each employee chooses voluntarily, the only condition being that all employees must be at the workplace during specified hours.
Many workers do indeed elect to travel to during off hours, either before or after the morning rush hour.
Several Brazilian cities have adopted flex time plans, including Rio de Janeiro, S?o Paulo, Porto Alegre, Recife and Curitiba.
The results are a smaller number of trips during peak hours, less fuel consumption and increased travel speeds for public transit vehicles (Fernandes, 1985).
In Guatemala City, the start of the public sector workday (including municipal offices) was delayed till 9:00 a.m. in 1996.
Since schools begin at 7:00 a.m., the measure had a significant impact on congestion.
In Santiago, Chile, schedules have gradually been staggered, in some cases spontaneously.
Hence, construction begins at approximately 7:00 a.m., factories at 8:00 a.m., schools between 8:00 and 8:30 a.m., public agencies at 8:30 a.m., banks at 9:00 a.m., the private sector between 9:00 and 9:30 a.m. and retail businesses from 9:30 a.m. onward.
Banks have mandatory business hours and a few decades ago retail businesses were required to open at 10:00 a.m.
Once the latter were allowed to open when they chose, they began their day slightly earlier, as shoppers do not tend to go out early in the morning.
Furthermore, a complication is arising in Santiago: publicly funded schools are in the process of switching from a split session (different groups of students attend class either in the morning or in the afternoon) to a joint session, so many students who used to travel in the afternoon before rush hour will now be going to school in the morning, with the consequent overloading of public transportation.
A study (MIDEPLAN, 1998b) has identified this impact on the urban transportation system.
One line of action proposed to counteract it is to have staggered schedules at different schools to avoid the pressure of many additional trips during rush hour.
It is obvious that it does result in a longer period of time when people are traveling and therefore less traffic during the heaviest times, which means shorter travel times and lower vehicular operating costs.
The measure itself does not cost any significant amount to implement, although there may be costs stemming from the need to adjust to new schedules.
Commuters have the option of continuing to travel at the times they prefer.
A longer rush hour means that the same total number of passengers can be moved with fewer buses and therefore the density of trips is reduced.
The required adjustment to new schedules could result in temporary productivity losses.
Additional trips may be required, because the staggering could hinder a combination of trips that was previously feasible.
That is typical of parents taking their children to school and continuing on to work, which may not be possible without immediately returning home.
Changing habits is at least a subjective inconvenience, as it entails rearranging activities.
It takes time to arrive at a new system.
In the private sector, the authorities have little chance of mandating a certain schedule of activities.
Given that congestion occurs because many cars are circulating, it has occurred to some that congestion could be eased by prohibiting a portion of the existing fleet of vehicles from circulating, without infringing on the right to buy vehicles.
Vehicle restriction involves prohibiting the circulation of some vehicles during certain periods in certain areas, Monday through Friday.
This measure has been applied to reduce congestion or environmental pollution; therefore, depending on the intended goal, the type of application will vary.
The focus here is to deal with congestion by taking a certain number of vehicles out of circulation in the restricted area, although in contrast there are references to controlling pollution.
Who should be restricted?
Obtaining appreciable results in cutting congestion requires prohibiting a significant portion of the fleet, which should rotate throughout the week.
Usually the measure is applied to 20% of the vehicles subject to restriction each day Monday through Friday, although this proportion may be higher when pollution indices are high.
The prohibition may encompass all vehicles across the board, or some may be exempt.
Private vehicles (meaning cars, all kinds of taxis, pickup trucks and vans) are the main ones affected.
Furthermore, it is common to ban the circulation of trucks and other freight vehicles in downtown areas during rush hour and to establish special times for loading and unloading.
It makes no sense to prohibit the circulation of buses unless the goal is to combat pollution as well, since it is buses that cause the least congestion per passenger transported and that provide an important option for those who must leave their cars at home.
For this reason, school transportation, which is done by minibus in many cities, should not be affected either.
Collective taxis do not transport enough passengers to justify exemption, and if they were exempt, there would be tremendous pressure to convert individual taxis into collective ones en masse.
One simple option is to go by the last digit of the licence plate.
A daily ban on two digits would restrict 20% and allow all vehicles to be covered between Monday and Friday.
Other formulas allow a greater or smaller fraction to be restricted.
It is a good idea to keep the same rotation pattern over a long period of time, possibly several months, as frequent changes cause confusion among drivers.
If the pattern remains in place for too long, however, it penalizes those who are restricted on Friday, when many people wish to leave the city.
Therefore, the pattern should change every so often.
Another, more market-oriented possibility is to discriminate by circulation permit or travel fee.
In cities where this measure is to be implemented, an additional fee would be charged, which would be higher for those who wish to be exempt from any restriction, a lesser amount for those who wish to be restricted one or two days a week, for example, and nil for those restricted Monday through Friday.
The fees would be set at levels that would cut circulation by the desired amount.
Vehicles would be distinguished by windshield stickers of different colours and characteristics.
To be sure, the opposite could be done, that is, reducing the cost of the annual permit by different amounts depending on how many days a week the restriction is to be in effect.
In any event, it must be accepted that enforcement is more complicated than it is when the final digit of the licence plate is the criterion.
This measure should cover all districts of the city where there is congestion.
That is generally true of the city centre and various major avenues.
The restriction should be limited to these areas, although for reasons of practicality and simplicity most of the city tends to be affected within an established perimetre.
Applying the restriction to the entire city is only justified for environmental reasons.
The restriction should be in force during periods of congestion, meaning rush hour, especially in the morning.
If many drivers choose to go to work by different means, it is less likely that they will be using their cars in the afternoon rush hour, which would automatically alleviate congestion.
The restriction has been applied for the entire day, excluding the nighttime hours.
Imposing it during valley or off-peak hours during the day would be justified by environmental reasons, not congestion.
On holidays and during the season when urban traffic diminishes significantly because of vacations, the vehicle restriction should obviously be suspended.
There is no doubt that prohibiting circulation can have an impact on traffic volumes in the short term, as it effectively shrinks the size of the fleet of vehicles.
In the medium term, however, its impact diminishes.
The high rate of vehicle purchases observed in Latin America over the last decade means that in three or four years the number of vehicles may grow by 20%, cancelling out the effects the restriction is intended to achieve.
Additional pressure on the growth and, incidentally, on the ageing of the fleet comes from the fact that those who can afford it have an incentive to buy a second vehicle, possibly an older one, to evade the restriction, especially if it applies to whole days.
Restricting vehicles as a means of combating congestion was tried in Buenos Aires, Argentina in the 1970s, when half of all vehicles were prevented from entering the city centre depending on whether the last digit of the licence plate was even or odd.
The method was also used in Caracas, Venezuela in the 1980s.
The same prohibition was imposed on half of all vehicles in Athens, Greece between 1985 and 1991.
Assessment of the programme did not yield good results, as the fleet grew older when many drivers purchased a second vehicle.
Moreover, the circulation of motorbikes increased, and it has been shown that they cause more pollution than cars.
Compliance with the restrictions also declined over time (MINTRATEL, 1995).
In Managua, Nicaragua, half of the fleet of taxis has been subject to restrictions since 2001, when the excessive number of vehicles in circulation caused congestion.
Vehicles with even-numbered licence plates circulate between 6:00 a.m.and 2:00 p.m., while those with uneven numbers may do so between 2:00 and 10:00 p.m.
Another example of this measure, taken for the purpose of combating air pollution, is in Mexico City, where there is a permanent vehicle restriction programme.
From Monday through Friday, between 5:00 a.m.and 10:00 p.m., vehicles are prohibited from circulating according to the final two digits of the licence plate, with each vehicle being allowed to circulate one day a week.
On days when pollution indices are high, the restriction is applied to half of all vehicles (even or odd licence numbers).
Studies show that the negative impacts of this measure are higher than the positive ones.
One reason is that people have bought second vehicles, so in effect many individuals are not restricted at all.
Indirect evidence suggests that environmental pollution has grown worse because of the restriction (Tovar, 1995).
In Bogot?, Colombia, the programme called “Pico y placa” [peak and plate] has been in place since 1998.
It consists of restricting four licence plate digits per day from Monday through Friday, only during peak hours of the morning (7:00 to 10:30 a.m.) and afternoon (5:30 to 7:30 p.m.).
The speed of traffic has increased by 43%, fuel consumption has fallen 8%, and air pollution is down 11%.
It should be noted that several other steps are being taken to promote travel on foot (restoring sidewalks, which often have been invaded by parked cars) and by bicycle (with a network of bike lanes).
In addition, a public transportation network with high-capacity buses travelling on special roads, known as Transmilenio, has been put in place.
In addition, measures have been adopted to encourage people not to drive private cars.
For seven hours every Sunday, 150 kilometres of roads are closed to vehicle traffic so that they can become bicycle-only roads.
The first Thursday in February, between 6:30 a.m. and 7:30 p.m., “car-free day” is celebrated.
As the name suggests, on this day people are invited to leave their cars at home, and it has enjoyed widespread acceptance.
Since 1995, a number of experiments in restricting vehicles have been conducted in the metropolitan region of S?o Paulo, Brazil.
At first, voluntary vehicle restriction was practised for a week; then the State Secretariat of the Environment suggested that each day cars with a certain combination of final digits on the licence plate be left at home.
The first two days, participation was relatively high at 50%, but it fell in the ensuing days.
The overall average was 38%.
In 1996, the restriction became mandatory (State Law 9,358) and a fine of 100 reales was levied against violators.
This plan was in place from 5 to 30 August, between 7:00 a.m. and 8:00 p.m.
Compliance with the measure hovered around 95%.
It is estimated that during the period when the law was in force, carbon monoxide emissions fell by 1,171 tons and 40 million litres of fuel was saved.
The average speed of traffic rose by 20% and congestion during peak hours was cut by 40%.
Between 23 June and 30 September 1997, the plan was again put into effect between 7:00 a.m. and 8:00 p.m. throughout the S?o Paulo metropolitan area, with a fine of 78.16 reales levied against violators.
Compliance was relatively high at 90% in the morning and 85% in the afternoon.
During that period, carbon monoxide emissions fell by 42,460 tons, particulate matter by 200 tons.
Vehicle restrictions have been in place since 1986 in Santiago, Chile, for the stated purpose of decreasing environmental pollution caused by motor vehicle emissions.
Pollution is most serious during the coldest period of the year (April to August) because the lack of wind hinders the dispersal of pollutants.
In recent years, however, the measure has been in place from March to December, which has shown its usefulness in reducing congestion as well.
The restriction is in effect from 6:30 a.m. to 8:30 p.m. throughout the city and adjacent areas Monday through Friday, with light vehicles being taken out of circulation according to the final digits of their licence plates, two digits being affected each day according to a table that is changed every few months.
Within the perimetre of the beltway avenue, freight vehicles are also subject to the same restrictions.
When pollution climbs higher than acceptable levels, exceptional measures designated “alert”, “pre-emergency” and “emergency” are triggered.
One consequence of these measures is that the number of licence plate digits subject to restrictions is increased to four, five and eight, respectively; certain avenues are also limited to buses only in order to help them travel more rapidly and thus reduce their emissions.
Originally, the restriction applied only to vehicles without catalytic converters, as a means of encouraging the purchase of vehicles equipped with them and thus enhancing air quality.
This measure has stimulated the conversion of the vehicle fleet to those emitting fewer pollutants.
Since 2001, however, 20% and 40% of vehicles with converters, respectively, have been restricted during pre-emergency and emergency states.
The rationale for this measure is that although they pollute less, they still contribute to pollution, especially by raising dust on the streets.
Vehicles with catalytic converters are identified by means of a green windshield sticker and those without them have red stickers.
Cities applying this measure have reduced congestion in the short term, but the effect dissipates because of the expansion of the fleet of vehicles and the possible purchase of a second car.
If the measure is applied with a variable-cost additional circulation permit, it is easier to make incremental changes in the number of vehicles allowed to circulate.
As long as congestion is eased, travel times will decrease and average speeds will therefore increase.
This impact is seen in the short term as traffic levels decline.
This measure requires publicity and, above all, enforcement, generally by traffic authorities.
Vehicle restriction, either by licence number or by surcharge, involves the dilemma of infringing upon the right to travel, which has been paid for expressly each year.
Suspending this right during certain pre-established periods amounts to an expropriation and can give rise to constitutional and legal arguments.
In some countries, a law may have to be passed to allow this measure to be put in effect.
Chile’s case is emblematic, as the measure has officially been implemented on environmental grounds, even though many interpret it as an anti-congestion effort.
In view of the heavy volume of traffic during peak hours, enforcement is difficult, especially if stopping a vehicle causes more congestion.
That might cause people to flout the restriction, which would be against equity.
This occurs whenever it is possible to obtain a second or even a third vehicle, at low cost, of course, to evade the restriction.
Traffic congestion is partly due to a strong propensity to drive, reinforced by the fact that individuals do not perceive the cost imposed on others when they drive under those conditions.
Road pricing is one way of ensuring that those who cause the added costs pay for them, so that only those who are willing to pay the price are allowed to continue circulating during peak hours.
This contributes to a net reduction in traffic.
Road pricing consists of levying a fee to circulate in or enter specific streets or areas during times when there is congestion there.
The purpose is to make individuals circulating in a congested area see that their presence there imposes a cost on the other vehicles circulating in the area, in the form of longer travel times and higher operating costs, especially fuel costs (see chapter II).
Normally this additional cost is not internalized individually, and drivers’ decisions are made according to a vision of the cost to themselves; and even if they take into account the effect that congestion has on them, it is less than the total impact.
The result is that traffic increases more than is good for the economy.
In practice, the perceived price of driving in a congested area is analogous to a subsidy, without any economic reason for it.
On the contrary, to the extent that each driver internalizes the added cost he imposes, the use of public roadways is rationalized.
In fact, certain drivers will not be willing to pay the price of congestion and will seek out other alternatives, either using other modes of transportation or driving at times when the fee is not charged.
In theory, road use would be optimized if the exact additional cost could be charged at all times (known as the marginal cost in technical terms) and if people knew that value for each one of their travel options before beginning their journey.
The result would be the control of congestion.
Consequently, charging a fee for congestion is a disincentive for using personal vehicles in congested areas and times.
It is interesting to note that this regulates the use of public roadways by means of a market tool rather than a regulation imposed by the authorities.
Which areas or streets should be subject to pricing?
Ideally, pricing should be applied to every stretch of roadway affected by congestion and only there.
It makes no economic sense to apply pricing elsewhere, which would be contrary to the overall public welfare.
The problem is that there are not yet adequate cost and effectiveness technologies for this purpose, although in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom there is an effort to develop them (see box IV.8).
In practice, currently available technologies limit the application of road pricing to specific areas or streets.
In the first variant, the fee is charged for entering areas defined as congested or for circulating on any street within them; in the second, it is charged for travelling on individual streets deemed congested.
To avoid arbitrariness, the characteristics that must prevail in order for a place to be considered congested and for streets and areas to be subject to pricing must be defined and publicized.
The problem with these schemes lies in the physical or temporal margins of the areas subject to fees.
It is easy to imagine that nearby streets, though not designed for it, will have heavier than normal traffic and may even become congested, with an increased risk of accidents.
The same thing would happen immediately before or after the pricing period.
This would transfer at least part of the congestion to places or times that were free of pricing.
When pricing should be in effect?
Pricing should cover periods when there is congestion, which generally happens during rush hour.
The morning rush hour tends to be the most congested, so it is possible that the measure will be sufficiently effective if applied only during that time; many people would stop driving to work, which would automatically relieve the afternoon rush hour.
If the congestion lasts beyond rush hour, pricing could extend beyond it as well.
Which types of vehicles should be subject to pricing?
It would apparently be necessary to subject all vehicles to pricing, because they all contribute to congestion, albeit at different levels.
The main causes of congestion, however, in terms of the number of passengers carried, are cars, so it is acceptable to apply the measure to them alone.
How much should be charged?
Fees can be levied in accordance with the distance travelled, the time spent on the street, the amount of congestion in the area or street in question, or simply for entering them.
The socially optimum fee is equal to the additional costs the vehicle entering the flow imposes on others already circulating there.
Technically, that would entail increasing the private costs of circulating on the congested street until they are equal to the social costs.
Since the amount of congestion varies over time, even within rush hour, strictly speaking the fee would have to be variable, with the consequent system of informing drivers so that they could take it into account at any time.
Without ruling out the possibility that the technology for making this theoretical system a reality may someday exist, at present we must be content with setting fees that reflect as well as possible the congestion created and letting everyone know in advance what they are so that no one feels deceived.
This is a scenario known as the “second best” option.
What technology should be used for collecting fees?
Technologies for collecting fees have improved dramatically in recent years.
There are several fee collection systems available for urban streets these days.
This consists essentially of using a card attached to vehicles’ windshields if drivers wish to circulate in the areas subject to pricing.
The cards can be purchased at various outlets.
The cost of implementing this system is moderate, although it has the drawback of a potentially high rate of evasion; moreover, it requires a lot of enforcement personnel, as visual inspection must occur at many different points, with the practical problem of effectively recording all violations.
Payment at stations similar to traditional toll booths is unacceptable in urban areas, as it would cause heavy congestion at collection points.
In the electronic system, the fee is automatically charged as each vehicle passes through the area in question.
For this purpose, each vehicle must be equipped with a transponder or tag, which sends a signal to antennae located at collection points (P?rez, 2001).
A transponder that identifies the user; the fee is collected by sending a bill periodically to the party, or it is deducted from an account previously identified y the party.
This system is also known as “second generation fee collection”, in contrast to collection at traditional booths.
It has the drawback of identifying at what time the driver passed through a given place, which could be considered an invasion of privacy.
A transponder that includes a pre-paid card, with the corresponding amount being deducted from the value of the card at each point.
This is also known as “third generation fee collection”.
Although it is true that this is a more complex technology, it protects the identity of the driver, as long as the card included in the transponder has a high enough balance.
Detection and classification of vehicles: they must be capable of identifying vehicles subject to payment and those exempt from payment; they must also be able to handle several lanes of traffic simultaneously, or else traffic must be channeled into separate lanes in a timely fashion.
Warnings to drivers that they are approaching a collection point.
Actual collection of the fee.
Identification of violators: normally this is done by taking a photograph of the licence plate of the suspect vehicle (as it does not have a transponder or enough of a balance on the card, or some other defect).
Antenna-transponder and antenna-central computer communication.
Administration, including billing or charging and reporting of violators.
In the Netherlands and the United Kingdom recently, experts have cited the need to develop a system for collecting, on any route at any time, the costs that each vehicle imposes by circulating, including congestion costs.
Briefly, the idea consists of requiring every vehicle to be equipped with a unit that makes it possible to locate the vehicle at all times no matter where it is using Global Positioning System (GPS) technology.
Monitoring is done by satellite.
The system would enable authorities to locate vehicles on all roads, be they large or small, urban or rural.
The portion of the fee corresponding to circulation, compared to that corresponding to congestion, would vary according to the type of street and the volume of traffic on it; on most routes the fee would be zero, as it would be on main roads during periods of light traffic.
Two possible methods of collecting the fee are under consideration, both similar to the electronic systems described above.
This possible future system is more equitable, since it would allow fees to be collected on all roads, thus solving the problem of what happens at the margins of times and areas subject to pricing.
Advocates of the plan also propose keeping the fiscal revenues from the transport system constant, which means that if it is implemented, it would be necessary to cut fuel taxes and fees for circulation permits accordingly.
Road pricing has been under discussion for more than three decades, but there are not many instances of its application.
It is clear that the population and legislators are highly resistant to this measure.
There are various reasons for the resistance, including doubts about the real effects, the fairness of its application and the effectiveness of enforcement; fears about the impact on the development of areas subject to pricing and about discrepancies in the use of the revenues collected; opposition to new taxes and other arguments.
It is not insignificant that no city except Singapore has implemented road pricing specifically to control congestion.
Singapore has many characteristics that make it a special case, such as the fact that it is an island nation, that it has a government with extensive powers and that its population accepts a large number of regulations in all aspects of life.
The impact on alternate routes to those subject to pricing, many of which will be local streets not necessarily designed to handle heavy volumes of diverted traffic.
The existence of appropriate public transit options to replace private cars.
Residents’ access to the area subject to pricing.
Possible adverse impact on low-income disadvantaged persons who travel by car.
Business, retail and educational activities in the areas subject to pricing; these must be considered early in the process of planning and all interested parties should participate in the identification of possible solutions.
One possibility to bear in mind is staggering the schedules of such activities.
The allocation of revenues: there is strong resistance to new taxes, so the only spending that the public is apparently willing to accept is for improved public transit, investment in widening, rehabilitating, maintaining, marking and posting signs on streets, promoting development of the city and the like, but they would be unlikely to tolerate pouring the revenues into the general fund of the nation.
Lack of understanding of collection technologies.
To the extent that these factors receive adequate consideration, it may be possible to gradually increase public acceptance.
At any rate, an extensive information and persuasion campaign cannot be omitted.
Numerous studies of road pricing have been conducted in different cities around the world since the 1960s, but actual applications are few.
Until the middle of 1994, the only application of road pricing to control congestion was in Singapore, which introduced its programme in 1975.
The measure was intended to alleviate congestion, but the fees are very high.
Thus, it can be inferred that collecting revenues is an essential objective of the system.
Congestion is under control in Singapore, especially since fee collection was automated.
At first the system was manual, but now it is electronic.
Thus, it is possible to vary fees in order to prevent a concentration of trips just before or after the period when the highest fee comes into effect.
Road pricing was tested in Hong Kong and officials finally decided not to implement it.
One of the main reasons for this was the technology used; it recorded the location of every vehicle at every moment, which was considered an unacceptable invasion of drivers’ privacy.
Moreover, fees were to be collected by mailing a bill and it was feared that there would be a high number of errors.
It can be concluded from this experience that choosing the technology for fee collection is a very important decision, since one that is not trusted or accepted sufficiently by the public may cause the measure to fail.
The Norwegian cities Oslo, Bergen and Trondheim charge tolls on avenues leading into the city centre.
The initial objective was to collect funds to invest in urban transport, especially roadwork.
In the city of Trondheim, plans are under way to improve the fee collection system both in space and in time, in order to vary the rates according to time and place.
Although the objective of the road pricing in Trondheim is still to collect revenues, differentiating the rates by time of day, with greater amounts charged during periods of high demand, brings the plan in line with the concept of road pricing to control congestion.
In this case, for drivers who pay electronically, entering the city centre between 6:00 and 10:00 a.m. costs from 25% to 50% more than between 10:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m.
No fee is charged at other times.
Urban tolls in Norway are an interesting experience from the standpoint of manipulating demand.
There was a decline in the number of car trips.
In Trondheim, a 10% reduction was observed during toll periods and an 8% increase was seen during free periods, which suggests shifts in travel schedules.
Surveys also show that many people have switched to buses.
In addition, studies have been done for the city of Santiago, Chile, using the ESTRAUS Model (see chapter V).
It is not likely, however, that Congress will pass the law allowing the fees to be charged.
More road pricing studies have been conducted in the United Kingdom than in any other country, yet to date no system has been put into place.
This situation may change in 2003.
Ken Livingstone, mayor of London, ordered a toll of five pounds to be collected each day, beginning 17 February 2003, from all those entering the city centre of London Monday through Friday between 7:00 a.m. and 6:30 p.m. by crossing a pre-defined cordon of streets.
This measure was something he had promised during his election campaign.
Opponents of the measure have lobbied intensively, but the courts rejected their lawsuit attempting to have it annulled.
A study on anti-congestion measures in London (LPAC, 1998) concluded that road pricing applied within a specific area in the city centre would be an appropriate mechanism for cutting traffic in that area.
Decreases of 8%, 32% and 48% could be achieved with tolls of 2, 5 and 10 pounds, respectively.
These figures seem high, and in practice, traffic is expected to decline between 10% and 15% in the centre once the agreed-upon measure has been applied.
Outside the cordon, however, the impact would be limited, since many journeys begin and end without going into the centre.
Revenues ranging from 130 million to 180 million pounds per year are expected, and will be used for improving public transit.
The system will be implemented by selling entry permits at authorized locations.
Every ticket sold will be entered in a database along with the licence number of the vehicle it pertains to.
Cameras placed around the perimetre of the area will automatically record the licence numbers of vehicles crossing the cordon and they will be compared with the database for verification.
Although there is not much empirical evidence, the measure appears to have yielded significant results, reducing the number of car trips during rush hour and transferring a certain proportion of them to public transportation.
At least this is what the model studies show, particularly the one conducted for Santiago.
With fewer vehicles circulating, travel times are reduced, traffic speeds rise, and the cost of operating a vehicle declines.
It should be noted that these effects are probably short-term, and the results may be different in the medium and long terms.
With fewer vehicles on the road travelling faster and stopping less often, pollution diminishes.
Road pricing corrects the economic distortion that arises when drivers do not perceive the costs that they impose on others by causing congestion and allows for the rationalization of the transportation market.
Instead of the authorities imposing regulations, the use of public thoroughfares is regulated by market mechanisms.
The revenues generated by this measure are considerable, and they can be used for projects to improve urban transit or for local development.
Collecting a congestion fee is intended to make the cost perceived by drivers equal to the social cost of using the public roadways, including the price others must pay for the resultant congestion, and thus to make vehicle use appropriate from a social point of view.
In theory, the price of the congestion caused, which varies tremendously, should be collected on every street in every location at every moment and should be known to all drivers at all times.
This means that the number of streets subject to pricing and the amounts charged would be changing constantly.
It would require a detailed monitoring of traffic on practically every block of every street and a dynamic calculation of the costs of congestion, which would be transmitted instantaneously to drivers as the corresponding fee was being collected.
Current technology does not allow for this possibility, so road pricing is just an approximation, a “second best” choice.
Even if at some point it became possible to charge each vehicle for the additional or marginal costs it imposes on society, it is not clear what results road pricing would yield in the long run, since other components related to the transportation system are not governed by marginal prices.
That is true of green areas and farmlands surrounding cities.
Absent this type of pricing, or alternatively, controls on land use, cities will tend to expand, which complicates sustainability over the long term (see also section G.3 below).
Drivers will tend to avoid going into streets or areas subject to fees, diverting traffic towards toll-free streets and possibly causing congestion there.
Furthermore, immediately before a period of fee collection or higher fees, drivers will hurry to enter the area and risk causing accidents.
Because of practical difficulties with enforcement, manual systems have a high potential for evasion, which gives rise to inequity.
Electronic collection systems are more effective, although their current margin of error could undermine confidence if incorrect charges are made.
To prevent such a reaction, the companies collecting road tolls using this technology usually prefer forgoing the fee in cases of doubt.
In addition, in second-generation systems, the time and place of travel are recorded, which could spur resistance due to the invasion of privacy this entails.
The manual system has a relatively high cost, the electronic system an extremely high one.
Nonetheless, revenues could cover these costs and generate surpluses.
In this regard, the main problem of the electronic system is financing the hefty initial investment.
Even if enacted, the measure may encounter strong resistance from drivers, who would have to pay more or leave their cars at home for some habitual journeys, with the ensuing loss of satisfaction, safety and reliability.
A solution must be found for people who live in toll zones; if they are charged a fee, they could be prompted to move, and if they are exempt, third parties might fraudulently take advantage of the system.
Moreover, the effect on property values is not clear a priori.
Except for the manual system, introducing road pricing involves introducing a complex, cutting-edge technology that is still being developed.
This poses a major additional difficulty.
Road pricing, whether manual or electronic, is a complex system that entails collecting large amounts of money, which means that an entity to administer it must be created.
That may be a company or other appropriate body, either a public agency or a private firm operating under licence.
In any case, adequate controls must be put in place.
Recognizing that cars are extremely attractive because of the advantages they offer, a variety of methods have been developed and applied in some locations in an effort to encourage drivers to voluntarily change their car-related behaviours based on moral convictions.
These methods rely on the notion that people are more likely to make changes if they are given goals that are consistent with their scale of values or that represent positive changes in their lives (Department for Transport, United Kingdom, 2002a and b).
Emphasis is placed on identifying personalized options for making necessary trips by means other than the single-occupant car.
In the process, possible alternatives are analysed, and the advantages that individuals and society can obtain from them are examined.
The idea is that changes in behaviour come about if their benefits are understood.
These methods are people-oriented, and therefore they represent a substantial, diversified effort.
The results have been varied, but they offer hope for lasting behavioural changes.
A summary of the methods used, together with an evaluation of each, can be found in Department for Transport, United Kingdom (2002a).
Those that offer assistance in identifying the best way to carry out specific journeys, either by car or, preferably, by public transit.
Commuting to work is the main focus, although in some areas trips made for other purposes, such as looking for work or going to the hospital or convention centre, are included as well.
Those that attempt to modify travel habits and attitudes.
Some have been registered as intellectual property, such as IndiMark?, TravelSmart?, Travel Blending? and Living Neighbourhoods?.
IndiMark? and TravelSmart? are based on direct marketing in homes or by mail or telephone to promote the use of public transit and methods other than the car.
Travel Blending? and Living Neighbourhoods? are carried out at the community or neighbourhood level, and involve detailed analyses of travel habits and ways of modifying them.
Living Neighbourhoods? applies Travel Blending? in conjunction with other measures adopted by the locations in question to facilitate change.
Miscellaneous methods, including strict management of parking at private entities (see the box in section B.5.b titled “Paying commuters to leave their cars at home”); driver education in schools; publicity campaigns designed to raise awareness of sustainable modes of transportation, health, the environment and others; and travel information offices.
Travel Blending? is a technique intended to rationalize the use of the car without changing people’s activity patterns.
In this sequence of procedures, families’ habitual trips are recorded, then recommendations of possible changes are made, personal decisions are made about changes that are feasible and beneficial, follow-up and observation take place, and a final assessment is conducted.
The desired result is that certain transport behaviours are modified.
The technique requires the participation of specialized advisers who can make appropriate recommendations for thinking about and organizing trips in advance, harmonizing modes of transportation, and harmonizing activities (in terms of time and place so that long trips are avoided).
It is most appropriate in communities that share similar activities, such as businesses, neighbourhoods and schools.
Although from this point of view it covers only partial groups, its effect on peak travel times can be significant.
The table below sums up the results of three experiments.
The emphasis on promoting voluntary behavioural changes is relatively new, and it should be acknowledged that, in Latin America and possibly in many developing countries, making it a reality may be difficult.
Nonetheless, in developed countries such as Australia, this method is expected to cut car use by approximately 10% (The Review, 2002).
The behaviour of those who use the public roadways, be they drivers or pedestrians, has varying degrees of influence on congestion and also on safety.
The steady growth of roadway use led, first of all, to the establishment of rules of play, traffic regulations or standards, with a view to defining rights and restrictions on the use of streets and thus improving the flow of traffic as well as preventing accidents.
Unfortunately, many people are unaware of these rules or choose to ignore them.
A lack of driving discipline or consideration for others in fact reduces the capacity of the road network to a fraction of its potential.
Trying to gain a few seconds by violating the rules governing traffic at intersections or on streets seriously disrupts other vehicles’ movement, translating into heavier congestion and, unfortunately, a greater risk of accidents.
Pedestrians must also obey the rules of the road, crossing streets only at the times and places designated for that purpose.
Driver and pedestrian behaviour absolutely must improve.
That is why it is so very important to educate the entire population on traffic rules from early childhood onward.
This effort has tremendous possibilities and a broad scope.
Examples include driver education in school curricula, educational campaigns in radio and television spots or advertisements directed towards the public at large, driving schools, the requirement that a certain number of hours of supervised driving practice be carried out before obtaining a licence, and more stringent driving exams.
Some noteworthy initiatives have been launched in Brazil, such as using mimes to teach people how to cross the street at designated locations and playing folk or popular songs that teach the rules of the road at places where crowds congregate.
Another interesting innovation in Chile involves setting up uniformed student patrols to show classmates how to travel properly on the streets when going to and from school.
Immediate results cannot be expected, of course, but because young people are so malleable, programmes oriented towards them show great promise for future changes towards safer and more law-abiding behaviours.
Advances in computer technology make it possible to explore measures to encourage a reduction in the number of trips deemed necessary.
Beginning in the last decade of the twentieth century, residential access to the Internet and cable television has proliferated.
This will certainly influence the timing and frequency of travel.
An Internet connection allows greater flexibility in scheduling travel to work, and may also replace some trips with telecommuting.
As a result, the concentration of demand at peak times can be diluted.
In addition, some shopping trips can be replaced by ordering goods online to be delivered by truck.
It is also logical to assume that there will be less propensity to go out of the house for recreation, thanks to the expanded possibilities for at-home entertainment (Thomson, 2002a).
It is still premature to predict the repercussions of these changes, which are largely spontaneous in nature.
In any event, support for this trend can be one way of reducing the demand for travel during rush hour.
The spread of home ownership and car use has led to a deconcentration of residences and businesses in cities.
In the past, only members of the aristocracy could afford to travel in private vehicles such as carriages, and consequently no one else could live or travel more than 10 blocks from a streetcar, train or bus line for school, work or recreation.
This fact is still reflected in the cities of today.
In Santiago, for instance, 1992 data from the National Institute of Statistics (INE) show that the population density in traditional neighbourhoods that were developed before the days of the car hovers around 10,000 persons per square kilometre, while in newer areas, generally located on the outskirts of the city, this figure is 2,000 to 4,000.
In that same city, population density rose steadily from 1940 to 1980, but then it began to drop (Armijo, 2000) as citizens gained new freedom to travel by buying cars.
Between 1950 and 1970, in the U.S. cities of Chicago, Washington, D.C.and Boston, which by then were totally car-oriented, demographic density in the city centre had begun to decline as residents moved to the suburbs.
Meanwhile, the opposite was happening in the centres of Latin American cities.
Buenos Aires was the exception, as car driving arrived relatively early compared to the rest of Latin America, and it had the only suburban train system in the region, making it possible to live anywhere in a broad suburban area and commute downtown every day (Ingram and Carroll, 1978).
Suburbanization is also made easier by the fact that in Australian and North American city centres, there are between 0.4 and 0.5 parking places for every job (Kenworthy and Laube, 1999).
There is a strong correlation between urban density and the cost of public transport per passenger-kilometre, which prompts a pernicious spiral of greater car use, deteriorating public transit, reinforced car dependence, and finally, a city that is unsustainable in the long term.
Several authors have identified parametres in the trips made by individuals that appear to remain rather stable across time in a single city and even in groups of cities.
For example, the time spent travelling, per person and per day, fluctuates between 45 minutes and approximately one hour and 25 minutes, with a marked concentration at about one hour.
This is true whether the person lives in the United States or an African village (Schafer, 2000).
The speed of the available modes of transportation varies considerably.
Thus, in the villages of Ghana, people cover only 3.
5 kilometres per day in their daily hour, whereas in the United States they cover more than 60 kilometres, as they can travel by car rather than on foot.
A study of data compiled between 1955 and 1970 in U.S. cities concluded that “daily travel time per traveller is notably similar” (Zahavi, 1976).
If this correlation is true, a reduction in traffic speeds resulting from congestion would reduce the average distance travelled per person, unless alternative modes of transportation are found.
Some of these effects have an impact on land use, but not always in the same way, so the net impact varies from one city to another.
For example, reducing time available for travel would create a greater demand to live near workplaces or pressure to create new jobs near residential neighbourhoods; this would become especially apparent in cities with relatively strict land use regulations, particularly along the perimetre of the metropolitan zone, as is the case in Europe.
In Latin America, where these regulations are looser, the opposite trend would occur; that is, residences and workplaces would move to outlying areas that right now are free of major congestion.
Traffic congestion can encourage the use of public transport modes that are at least partially immune to its consequences, that is, those operating on separate roadways.
To the extent that their use increases, the demand for both residential and commercial property with good access would rise, as is the case near subway stations.
Although this trend appears to be occurring in several cities in the region, in Latin America the modal distribution (the manner in which travel is spread out among different modes of transportation) seems relatively inflexible in the face of changes in the prices or travel times of  the various modes (Swait and Eskeland, 1995).
In S?o Paulo, which is known for its heavy traffic congestion, surveys of travel patterns have been carried out over a period of 30 years.
As a result, certain inferences can be drawn with respect to the influence of congestion and its possible impact on land use, though no definite conclusions can be reached.
From 1977 to 1997, there was a reduction in the daily travel time per person from 76 to 64 minutes.
Although there are no consistent figures on traffic circulation speeds in S?o Paulo, they probably did decrease during this period; average speed per trip rose, however, from 9.4 km/h in 1977 to 9.7 km/h in 1987 and 10.9 km/h in 1997.
The consequence is that, despite the reduction in time spent travelling, the number of kilometres travelled per person per day has remained stable.
Moreover, the number of trips made per person per day fell from 1.53 in 1977 to 1.21 in 1997, and the average distance per trip rose from 7.8 to 9.5 kilometres (Companhia do Metropolitano de S?o Paulo, 1977, 1987 and 1997).
The situation has been analysed, at least partially, in relation to transport, but without identifying the impact of congestion on land use (Henry and Hubert, 2000 and Thomson, 2002a).
The scenario is consistent with growing congestion, however, and this encourages the movement of residential areas towards the suburbs, forcing citizens to cover ever-greater distances between home and work.
The greater physical separation and the rise in congestion, and perhaps also a greater availability of home entertainment thanks to cable television, causes people to make fewer trips.
Heavier congestion is compatible with a higher average speed per trip if people switch from slower modes of transportation, such as ordinary buses, to other less slow modes, such as buses on segregated lanes, subways or cars; and this is what appears to have happened.
From 1977 to 1997, the proportion of trips made by train (including the subway) climbed from 4.9% to 7.5%, and that of car trips from 26.3% to 30.9%.
Trips made by bus fell from 40.1% to 25.8%, and in general, travel speeds seem to have diminished.
The creation of separate bus lanes or streets in the most heavily travelled corridors during this time may have benefited more bus passengers, however.
Road pricing has been proposed as a means of improving the flow of traffic, cutting car use and promoting public transportation, and in general, of making the city a more enjoyable and sustainable place.
The long-term effects of this measure, however, may be diametrically opposed.
A number of analysts have studied, usually with mathematical models, the effect of road pricing aimed at controlling congestion on the physical boundaries of the city.
They have not always reached the same conclusions.
For example, one study concluded that road pricing would reduce the demand for travel and that it would lead to a more compact city (Oron et al, 1973).
Another reached the opposite conclusion (Mills, 1967).
Particularly in Latin America, signs point to the conclusion that road pricing would cause greater urban sprawl.
Road pricing raises the relative price of driving a car in more congested areas, that is, in areas of greater residential or commercial density, which normally tend to be located in the city centre.
In view of this increase, in the short term motorists tend to choose among three options, none of which is to their liking: i) switching to public transit; ii) continuing to travel by car but during toll-free times, either by getting up early or by arriving at work later; or iii) continuing to drive as usual, paying the corresponding fee.
The effect is that they have less access to areas subject to road pricing, making these less attractive places in which to live or work.
In the more distant future, drivers would have the option of moving away from the toll zone looking for cheaper places in which to drive.
Since car owners tend to have relatively high income, their exodus would reduce the demand for both high-end residences and business or office complexes.
Property prices could fall, and a process of urban decay might ensue.
Officials might try to halt this trend by improving the quality of public transit in the toll zone.
Proposals for road pricing often feature such improvements and call for financing them with some of the toll revenues.
The result would be better access to downtown areas for public transit riders.
Regrettably, it appears that there is a very low tendency to switch to public transportation in Latin America; at least that was reflected in a study conducted for S?o Paulo (Swait and Eskeland, 1995)2.
In other words, improvements in public transportation would not attract a large number of motorists, and their riders would generally remain persons of lower incomes and skill levels.
Especially in Latin America, business decisions regarding the location of offices take into account the preference of the most specialized employees, who are critical to success.
Given that they usually travel by car and they must be kept happy to avoid losing them, they will probably have their road tolls reimbursed.
No matter who is footing the bill, the costs of remaining in or moving to areas subject to road pricing would increase, and there would be pressure to go to exempt areas.
Residents would also contribute to that trend if they are not exempt from paying tolls.
The new destinations might have a lower quality of public transportation than the city centre.
Therefore, even employees who used to commute on public transit would have incentives to start driving, and if there is ample parking, that is exactly what they would do.
New residents might also continue driving their cars without any surcharge being imposed on them.
The result would be: i) less use of public transit; ii) more use of cars; iii) a tendency towards decay in the city centre; and iv) urban sprawl as the city incorporates land that had been devoted to farming or had been in a natural state.
It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that, unless the marked preference for driving cars could be changed, introducing road pricing in Latin American cities would lead to greater urban sprawl, the movement of workplaces out of toll zones and a reinforcement of the tendency of higher-income families to live in the suburbs, where public transportation is sometimes not very viable.
The average length of trips would increase and the city would become more dependent on private transportation (Thomson, 2002b).
The toll zone itself could undergo urban decay.
In other words, road pricing would have the perverse effect of decreasing the sustainability of the city in environmental terms, and probably in economic and social terms as well.
The aforementioned long-term trend towards unsustainability could be countered by imposing heavy restrictions on land use to prevent suburbanization.
With only a few exceptions, such as Curitiba, municipal authorities in Latin America have not proven to be very adept at implementing such restrictions, however.
At any rate, if they did so, they would run the risk of making the city a less attractive place to live, which would have an adverse effect on the prospects for economic development.
Imposing strict controls on parking would have different impacts, depending on the harshness of the measure.
If the restriction were applied only to on-street parking, the restricted area could become more attractive for high-end residences, which would eventually slow the trend towards suburbanization, though it would certainly not halt it altogether.
It is clear that demand-side actions have a place in the battle against congestion and yield concrete results.
To be sure, some are easier to implement than others, as they enjoy greater acceptance or less resistance among the citizenry.
In addition, some are low in cost and others can be financed by the private sector, which increases their viability.
Regulating parking and staggering schedules seem to be the best choices according to the criteria indicated above.
The optimum strategy could be a gradual implementation, combined with supply-side measures adopted in accordance with prevailing congestion levels.
What does seem clear is that the struggle will be constant, unless the demand for transport decreases for other reasons.
Although they may require painstaking measures to implement and therefore be slow to yield results on a citywide scale, techniques aimed at changing driving habits and attitudes may also have a lasting impact that can really be felt during rush hour.
In any case, when demand-side measures are designed, side-effects must be weighed carefully and special attention must be given to preventing undesired effects, especially in the long term.
In this regard, parking controls and road pricing are delicate matters, since poor design could result in depressed city districts or counterproductive consequences that undermine urban sustainability.
Santiago, the capital of Chile, is not unfamiliar with the phenomenon of rising traffic congestion that plagues large cities, with the consequent increases in travel times, vehicle operating costs and environmental pollution.
Projections for 2005 indicate that traffic speeds will worsen considerably, so the need to study and implement measures to help moderate and control congestion is inescapable.
The Interministerial Secretariat of Transport Planning (SECTRA) has developed the complex and proven computer models ESTRAUS, VERDI and MODEM, which make it possible to analyse in advance the results that would be obtained from adopting certain decisions regarding the Santiago transportation system.
These models were used to simulate the effects of various possible measures to control congestion and to evaluate their results in economic, social and environmental terms.
In 1991 a wide-ranging survey was conducted in Santiago of 32,000 households to determine what urban trips were made.
The ESTRAUS Model was calibrated on the basis of the results of that survey.
The greatest density of motor vehicle trips occurs between 7:30 a.m. and 8:30 a.m., so that time period is considered the morning rush hour.
This table also shows the projection for 2005, based on the assumption that the infrastructure and transport management will remain unchanged.
ESTRAUS (MIDEPLAN, 1997) is a model that balances transport supply and demand.
It is applicable to multimodal urban transport networks with many different types of travellers (as a function of their income, the purpose of their trips, or other factors).
Travellers are classified according to the socioeconomic attributes of the household they belong to; for this purpose, average income and the number of vehicles owned are taken into consideration.
The model assumes that in choosing among different available modes of transportation travellers apply a number of criteria, including costs, travel time and subjective preferences for one over another.
The multimodal network encompasses single modes of transportation, such as car, bus, taxi or subway, and combined modes, such as bus-subway, car-subway, etc.
The model incorporates capacity restrictions for both private and public transportation, which allows it to treat congestion explicitly.
It also incorporates the cost functions that exist on arcs (stretches of road) in the network.
The classic transport model features four stages: generation and attraction of trips, dispersal, modal distribution and allocation; the latter three are resolved simultaneously in ESTRAUS, while the first (generation and attraction of trips) is exogenous to the model.
The structure of the model can be seen in figure V.
The analyses are carried out for two periods during the day: i) the morning rush hour, from 7:30 a.m. to 8:30 a.m., and ii) off hours, between 10:00 a.m. and 12:00 noon.
The morning rush hour is when the urban transport system has the most unfavourable operating conditions, in terms of the number of trips by motor vehicle and the amount of congestion.
The importance of dealing with this period correctly is fundamental, considering that transport systems are designed to meet the demand for travel that occurs at that time, in terms of motorway capacity and public transit fleets.
Measures involving the urban transport system can mean changes in the costs of travelling on different modes of transportation in different places.
For example, charging for parking or raising the price can make car travel more costly, while introducing segregated lanes can reduce travel time for bus passengers.
A major change in travel time or cost will result in a modification of the modal distribution.
When the impact of a given measure is calculated, the total number of trips in the period of analysis remains constant, and the model must determine the new spatial distribution of that invariable number of trips, how they are spread out among the different modes, what routes are chosen, new volumes of traffic, travel times and operating costs for each stretch of motorway, among other elements.
To evaluate the impact of different measures, two scenarios are generated.
One is the base or “no project” scenario, corresponding to the original situation; the other is the situation that would arise if the measure were applied, also known as the “with project” scenario.
The results of a specific measure are portrayed as differences in relation to the base situation, which serves as a yardstick for comparison.
In the classic evaluation approach, the project’s benefits and costs are the positive or negative variations in resource consumption, which in the case of transportation essentially means travel times and vehicle operating costs.
If in the “with project” scenario the total of all these costs is less than in the base situation, the measure has benefits equal to the difference, and vice-versa.
The benefits must be compared with the costs of implementing the measure.
The option of evaluating the benefits to travellers estimates the total benefits of the project as the variation in the surpluses enjoyed by consumers (those who use the transport system) and those accruing to the producers of transport services (operators).
In the case of transport, a surplus is the difference between the costs a person is willing to incur and those he must actually pay to travel.
The surplus is a sort of margin or gain received by the user.
In other words, this system of evaluation considers subjective aspects, including the well-being or gain that travellers derive from using each mode of transportation.
This reflects the different preference for each mode, as people are willing to pay more for those considered most attractive; the car generally heads the list of preferences because of its greater versatility for travelling.
Thus, if a particular measure raises the cost of travelling on a mode, users of that mode suffer a loss, as their margin of gain diminishes; some must even switch to a lower-cost alternative that is less valued by them, which also diminishes their margin.
This would be the case, for example, of motorists who might switch to the bus in the face of road pricing or a change in the cost of parking that made driving by car cost more than they are willing to pay.
This would apply to bus passengers if the measure in question increased their travel speed.
In contrast to this traveller benefit scheme, classic evaluation is limited to measuring the impacts on the economy in terms of the variation in travel costs.
The two evaluations do not always yield the same results (both favourable or both unfavourable), contrary to what one might assume at first glance.
Sometimes a negative result is obtained when all the variations in surpluses or traveller benefits are summed up for the entire transport system of a city; this means that the majority of travellers suffer a loss of well-being or satisfaction.
At the same time, however, the classic evaluation can yield positive results if there is a decline in total transport costs, that is, if fewer resources are used to move all the travellers.
Santiago has adopted anti-congestion measures, but it is necessary to pursue new measures to improve the supply and operation of infrastructure and public transportation, and to act on demand as well, that is, on the use of vehicles.
Otherwise, the pressure exerted by demand can exceed any available infrastructure.
The ESTRAUS and VERDI Models were used to analyse a diverse set of options for dealing with congestion while also improving the economic efficiency of urban transport and helping to curb environmental pollution.
When the measures were proposed, special attention was given to the less affluent social classes which are frequently captive users of public transit.
The proposed measures are described below, with a summary of their characteristics and the principal impacts that would result in each case, using data from 1997.
In each case, the decision on whether to implement the measure will also have to take into account acceptance by the citizenry, as resistance by the citizens would render it unviable.
Segregated lanes are stretches of pavement isolated from the rest of the motorway by a physical barrier, and they are reserved solely for bus traffic.
This allows buses to travel more smoothly and avoid friction with other vehicles on the roadway.
The impact of segregated lanes was analysed previously (Fern?ndez and De Cea, 1999).
Implementation was considered for the principal arteries of Santiago, such as Pajaritos, Santa Rosa, Vicu?a Mackenna, Independencia, Alameda, Gran Avenida, Tobalaba, Am?rico Vespucio, San Pablo and Recoleta (see map V.1).
There would be one 3.5-metre lane in each direction, except in places where bus stops are located, where there would be two lanes to make it easier to go around stopped buses; the distance between stops ranges from 500 to 600 metres.
The results listed below come from the aforementioned study.
There is a change in the modal distribution favoring buses, with a nearly 0.4% increase in demand for buses among all trips.
The shift occurs mainly from subway and bus-subway travel.
Significant decreases in travel time are produced.
Travel on public transit takes approximately five minutes less on average.
Car drivers also realize savings of 1.5 minutes per trip.
Total time saved amounts to about 40 million hours per year.
These results have been more than corroborated by experiments with segregated lanes and bus-only streets introduced in Santiago (see chapter III section E).
The shorter travel time means higher speeds for both buses and cars.
It can be deduced that physical separation of types of traffic benefits public transport, and in particular leads to a general easing of congestion.
Consequently, this measure is deemed highly effective, and it has the virtue of favouring cars at the same time.
The principal results of the study (Fern?ndez and De Cea, 1999) are that in the first year of implementation there is an annual resource savings of US $57.
3 million.
Moreover, because of the greater travel speeds, 700 fewer buses are required to deliver the same service, with an existing fleet of approximately 10,000 buses.
Obviously, carrying out the segregation will require an investment (about US $637 million), but the long-term savings make the measure socially advantageous.
Executive buses are high-quality multi-passenger vehicles.
In the study for Santiago (CIS, 1995), they were assumed to have reclining seats, piped music, air conditioning, uniformed drivers, well-spaced stops and smart cards or subscription fares.
The establishment of 10 routes was considered (see map V.2), with two variants: i) 24-passenger buses circulating every 20 minutes, and ii) 40passenger buses circulating every 12 minutes.
A fare of 1,200 pesos was assumed, equivalent to US $2.61, which is between five and six times the regular bus fare.
The principal results are shown in table V.2.
It should be noted that for technical reasons related to the way the level of preference for executive buses was modelled, the results of the application of the ESTRAUS Model are not as precise as in the other cases studied, so they should be regarded as preliminary.
It can be seen that this system can attract nearly 2.
4% of all trips made during morning rush hour, which is rather significant in view of the fact that this amounts to more than half the number of trips made by subway.
Time spent waiting for executive buses is 68% less in the design with the higher capacity and frequency.
During rush hour, 33% of trips on executive buses, or about 6,700, would be made by people with high and medium-high incomes who, if this option were not available, would travel alone or carpool in private cars.
In addition, 40% of the passengers would come from regular buses.
Subway riders from the upper economic strata would also be attracted.
The average characteristics of bus and car trips improve slightly when smaller executive buses are introduced.
The same is true of bus trips when larger executive buses are employed, whereas car trips deteriorate slightly in this scenario.
What happens is that executive buses do not replace a sufficient number of car trips, and with larger executive buses, the number of congested stretches of roadway actually increases.
It is concluded that in the case of Santiago, introducing medium-sized executive buses (24 passengers) makes a contribution, albeit a modest one, to combating congestion; in contrast, introducing large buses is ineffective and even counterproductive.
They were not determined in this study.
Nevertheless, the operation of medium-sized executive buses is advantageous from a private point of view (CIS, 1995) during rush hour.
In other words, revenues from fares would offset the costs of the vehicles and their operation.
Parking prohibition was simulated, with an extremely high price assigned for parking in prohibited places.
The principal results are shown in table V.3.
It should be pointed out that parking restrictions in private places are difficult to implement, and legislation may have to be amended to make them possible.
When the different measures are analysed, a very slight improvement can be seen in operating variables in the scenarios that seem most feasible and that correspond to prohibiting parking on the street.
This may be due to the fact that Santiago already had a reasonable restriction in this regard.
The situation changes for the better when the prohibition is expanded to off-street parking during rush hour.
In the case of the greatest prohibition, the share of cars in total travel drops by 0.6%.
About 12,100 trips (0.1%) are subtracted from the single-occupant car mode; 40% of these drivers would switch to a car with more than one occupant, while the rest would switch to public transit.
With fewer cars competing for land use, travel times fall by about two minutes and speed rises by two km/h.
Travel times for public transport also decrease, with the consequent increase in speed.
The savings are similar for buses and cars.
The number of congested stretches of motorway declines to as little as 42, which is similar to the level seen in certain road pricing scenarios.
It can be concluded that if a city has already taken control over on-street parking, as Santiago has done, measures of this type for the purpose of reducing congestion would have to be harsh enough to discourage people from commuting to work by car, which is represented by the scenarios of maximum prohibition.
In keeping with the results of ESTRAUS, resource savings are low when on-street parking is banned, and the most restrictive scenarios appear the most attractive.
As parking becomes more restricted, the benefits to travellers increase commensurately.
The travellers who benefit the most are those in the lower-middle income group who do not have cars, and students in the middle-income strata.
Those who suffer the most losses are upper-middle income travellers who own two or more cars.
Road pricing consists of charging a fee during periods of peak traffic for travelling on specific streets or in specific areas where congestion is prevalent.
In the Santiago study, three concentric areas were identified for the application of this measure (see maps V.4 and V.5), and different tolls were indicated for each one (see table V.4).
The city centre and the area surrounding Avenida Providencia are where most travellers are headed. Avenida A. Vespucio is a beltway that encompasses most of the populated area of the city.
The tolls, equivalent to US $1.09, US$2.17, and US $4.35, respectively, were selected according to what was considered acceptable.
Tolls of less than 500 pesos would be too small to induce motorists to make significant behavioural changes.
Road pricing has been debated in the National Congress of Chile since 1991, with various formulas under consideration.
Although the Chamber of Deputies passed legislation, the matter has been tabled in the Senate, and passage seems a remote possibility.
The reasons for the resistance are analysed in chapter IV.
It should be mentioned, first of all, that road pricing in the area of Downtown plus Providencia yields inauspicious results.
The speed of buses and their attraction of passengers increases, but car circulation worsens.
The total savings in resources is modest.
The most noteworthy aspect is that as tolls rise, the already limited effectiveness of the measure declines until it even becomes negative.
This is because the area subject to pricing, though the destination of a large number of trips, comprises a small proportion of the total area of the city.
As a result, those not going downtown have an incentive to circumvent that area to get to their destinations, which lengthens the distance and time of many trips and cancels out many of the advantages yielded by buses.
Furthermore, with a higher toll, congestion is shifted to other streets.
Therefore, implementing road pricing in the city centre alone does not appear advisable.
The results are better in the other scenarios, with an increasing tendency to expand the area and raise tolls.
Buses could enhance their share of trips by 1% to 2%, while the opposite would occur, though in greater proportions, for car and taxi trips.
An interesting increase in average speeds for both private and public transportation is seen, in some cases by more than two km/h.
Travel times fall in all cases, especially for buses.
This is reflected in less total time spent travelling during rush hour, although in some scenarios there are sharp increases in the total distance travelled.
The effect on the number of congested stretches of roadway is variable.
The best results, logically, occur in the scenario with the highest toll (all of Santiago at 2,000 pesos), in which 55 stretches cease to be congested.
In general, the benefits calculated in terms of resource savings rise along with the amount of the toll charged, to as high as US $41 million per year in the most restrictive case.
Benefits calculated under the traveller benefits methodology, in contrast, are negative in every case, and the results grow even worse as the toll rises.
This is because when the toll is implemented, the difference between what drivers are willing to pay and the actual cost they must pay diminishes; in fact, a certain number switch to a less preferred mode, such as the bus, if the cost of driving their cars exceeds what they find acceptable.
The analysis by socioeconomic level indicates that all strata not owning cars are benefited because of the enhanced flow of bus traffic.
The opposite happens to car owners.
The group losing the most is the upper-middle income segment who own two or more cars.
All of the scenarios involve collecting revenues from tolls, which in the maximum case amount to more than US $90 million gross, assuming 250 business days per year.
The aforementioned segregated bus lanes are combined with parking prohibitions during rush hour in the Providencia strip and downtown, on the street in areas with and without parking metres.
Although an exhaustive comparison cannot be made because the evaluations were done separately, the results are not very different from those obtained from segregated bus lanes.
That was to be expected, since there is little to gain from prohibiting on-street parking in an area where there are few parking places anyway.
The changes in modal distribution are minimal, though in the case of buses they are greater, with an additional 0.5% of travellers attracted.
Car and bus travel times diminish, with the improvements for the latter being much greater at more than four minutes.
This makes major inroads into the time spent travelling during rush hour.
Distances travelled do not change substantially.
The measure reduces by 19 the number of congested stretches of motorway.
The savings in resources amount to more than US $13 million a year, a modest sum.
Unlike road pricing, this scenario yields positive results when evaluated according to traveller benefits.
The resulting figure is nearly US $93 million, primarily due to the significant time savings by bus passengers, on the order of 42,000 hours for each peak hour.
All socioeconomic strata improve their situation under this measure.
The fleet of buses could be reduced by about 570 units with the same level of service.
Segregated bus lanes are combined with a toll of 2,000 pesos for entering the area defined by the A.Vespucio Beltway.
This combination of measures is seen to be very effective with respect to modal distribution, as the number of those driving private cars falls by more than 2% and the number taking the bus rises by the same amount.
Major time savings (3.6 minutes) and increases in speed (3.3 km/h) for cars are realized.
The gains for public transit are much more pronounced, with trip times falling by more than five minutes and speeds rising by more than four km/h.
Nearly 70,000 hours are saved during rush hour, which translates into a decrease of 10% in total travel time.
Most is saved by bus riders (more than 40,000 hours).
In turn, congested stretches are cut by 70, that is, by half.
As with the road pricing scenarios, contrasting results are seen between the traveller benefit and resource savings evaluations.
Benefits calculated in terms of resource savings are positive, totalling nearly US $46 million per year.
On the other hand, the evaluation of benefits to travellers shows losses of nearly US $285 million per year.
The greatest decline in benefits is experienced by high-income travellers who own two or more cars, while the lowest-income strata who do not own cars receive positive results.
Higher bus speeds allow for a fleet reduction of 900 units, approximately 9%.
Charging a toll would yield more than US $30 million in gross revenues per year.
Santiago is a city that has not started from scratch when it comes to controlling congestion.
Consequently, the results achieved by the modelling should be analysed based on existing conditions, which are mentioned in section A.2 of this chapter.
Centralized traffic light control, bus-only lanes and segregated bus lanes on two streets, expanding the subway system, substantial improvements in horizontal and vertical signposting, redesigning numerous intersections, local rationalization of routes, and a certain level of on-street parking prohibition had all made major contributions.
It is difficult to quantify the contribution of the measures adopted previously, but it is clear that they have kept traffic speeds from declining significantly.
Centralized traffic light control may have played a great role, as evidenced by the traffic chaos and heavy congestion in many parts of the city that occurred one day when a criminal act took the computers off line and the traffic lights reverted to basic individual programming or were deactivated.
From the standpoint of saving resources, the most plausible results are derived fom segregated bus lanes and some road pricing scenarios.
When traveller benefits are considered, segregated bus lanes clearly stand out, while all road pricing schemes yield negative results.
Prohibiting off-street parking, whether paid or free, during rush hour in the city centre also appears to be an interesting prospect.
Nonetheless, it may be advisable to leave this measure for later, when the battle against congestion needs a new impetus, perhaps by offering incentives not to commute to work by car, as long as there is a good public transportation system.
At any rate, care would have to be taken to prevent this measure from driving businesses out of the city centre.
Prohibiting on-street parking more than is currently done, introducing executive buses, and road pricing downtown have insignificant and, in two cases, even counterproductive results.
In terms of self-sustainability or financing, road pricing measures would generate sufficient revenues to offset the costs involved in control systems, and might even yield surpluses.
One possible exception is road pricing in the downtown area alone, which would not produce major revenues.
In contrast, segregated lanes require someone to underwrite the cost of establishing them, which may be high if expropriation is required, and also maintaining them.
An executive bus system would apparently pay for itself.
From the above considerations, it can be deduced that the most appropriate measure, the one that would lead to a major reduction of congestion in Santiago as it stands today, appears to be the introduction of segregated bus lanes.
Little value value would be added by imposing additional on-street parking prohibitions; the latter aspect could be handled by making an ongoing assessment of thoroughfares that should continue providing on-street parking.
Although implementing road pricing alone or combined with segregated lanes could reduce the number of congested stretches of motorway, it cannot be ignored that all evaluations are negative when traveller benefits are taken into account.
In addition, there is strong resistance to tolls, and it is unlikely that legislation making it feasible will pass.
Besides establishing segregated lanes, introducing medium-sized executive buses might be a complementary measure, provided that it is selfsustaining.
Any set of conclusions should be considered in the context in which they were reached, so it would be risky to give advice to other cities based on the studies carried out in Santiago.
In particular, this metropolis has made progress in managing congestion, and it is under those circumstances that segregated bus lanes appear to be the most advisable alternative.
Nonetheless, Santiago’s experience highlights some measures that are worthy of consideration in other cities, though always with the proper studies and adaptations to local conditions.
Apparently, the most positive effects could be gained from a centralized traffic light control system coupled with segregated lanes for public transit, which could even lead to the reorganization of routes into trunk and feeder lines.
The rationalization of on-street parking, improved signposting and improvements in the design of intersections and the width of streets should not be ruled out and in fact should be an ongoing effort.
Vehicular congestion and atmospheric pollution are two major problems that plague modern cities, especially in developing countries.
The two have causes in common.
Congestion is produced by the operation of motor vehicles on streets and avenues of limited capacity.
Pollution is produced because contaminant emissions, of which vehicles account for a large percentage, exceed the absorption and dilution capacity of the basin in which the city is located.
Therefore, it is reasonable to expect that transport policies and measures designed to reduce congestion in a city will also have an effect on air pollution.
This chapter describes the influence of vehicular congestion control measures on emissions of atmospheric contaminants.
In addition, based on measures to ease congestion that were studied for the city of Santiago, Chile, the impact of pollutants on the population's health is modelled, and finally, the social benefits of reducing benefits are compared with those derived from cutting atmospheric contaminants.
Atmospheric contaminants can be classified into two large groups: i) those that have local and regional effects and ii) those that have global or planetary effects.
The main atmospheric contaminants are particulate matter, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogenous oxides and volatile organic compounds.
In addition, many heavy metals are present in particulate matter in the atmosphere.
The term "primary contaminants" refers to those introduced directly into the atmosphere by the phenomena that produce them; "secondary contaminants" are those that form in the atmosphere because of the presence of primary contaminants.
The particulate matter (PM) in the atmosphere is a complex mixture of organic and inorganic substances, ranging from sea salt and soil particles to soot particles produced by burning fossil fuels.
Particulate matter from combustion can be emitted directly, in the form of elemental and organic carbon, or it can form in the atmosphere from other contaminants.
It can also be emitted when street dust is resuspended.
The total particulate matter present in the atmosphere is called total particles in suspension (TPS).
Finer particles are labelled according to their size; for example, PM10 encompasses all particles with a diametre of less than 10 microns,1 and PM2.5 includes all those smaller than 2.5 microns.
Sulphur dioxide or sulphurous anhydride (SO2) is a colourless gas that occurs because of the presence of sulphur in fuel, primarily diesel.
It later oxidates in the atmosphere and produces sulphates, which are part of the particulate matter.
SO2 in the presence of particulate matter forms a lethal mixture; this mixture has been responsible for episodes such as that of 1952 in London, when thousands of people died.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is an odourless, colourless gas that comes about because of incomplete combustion.
CO prevents the blood from transporting oxygen, and in high concentrations it causes death.
Ozone, an oxidant, is the main atmospheric contaminant constituting what is known as photochemical smog, which is produced by chemical reactions in the atmosphere in the presence of ultraviolet radiation.
The aerosols that form as part of the photochemical process result in reduced visibility, giving the atmosphere a reddish brown appearance.
The most important nitrogenous oxides are nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
NO2 absorbs light in the visible range, which lessens visibility.
NO2 is part of the chain reaction that leads to the formation of photochemical smog.
And finally, many heavy metals can be found in the atmosphere.
Lead is perhaps the most common of them because of its use as an additive in regular gasolines.
Atmospheric contaminants can have various effects.
The main ones are an impact on public health, harm to vegetation and ecosystems, damage to materials and reduced visibility.
Because of its greater importance, human health is the focus of this analysis, although the other effects should not be ignored.
There is no longer any doubt that air pollution has harmful effects on public health.
The terrible episodes of the middle of the last century in London (England), Donora, Pennsylvania (United States) and the Meuse Valley (Belgium) left no room for doubt that high levels of pollution can have deleterious effects, including increased mortality in the exposed population.
Numerous epidemiological studies conducted in the last 30 years have shown that current levels of pollution also have adverse effects.
The Environmental Protection Agency in the United States (USEPA) and the World Health Organization (WHO) are constantly carrying out analyses and studies to quantify the health damage caused by air pollution.
Contaminants produce a great variety of health effects; the principal ones are shown in table VI.1, which sums up current knowledge.
An excellent review of the state of the art with respect to the impacts of atmospheric contaminants on health can be found in Holgate et al (1999).
The main global contaminants are the so-called greenhouse gases (GHG).
The most important ones are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and tropospheric ozone (O3).
These gases trap infrared radiation reemitted to space by the earth, so an increase in their concentration causes the atmosphere to heat up (PICC, 2001).
The result is an increase in extreme weather phenomena and other climatic consequences.
These gases have a long life and are distributed throughout the atmosphere, so their effect does not depend on the place where they are emitted.
Motor vehicles are one of the principal sources of atmospheric contaminants in large cities.
Motor vehicles that operate on internal combustion engines produce three types of contaminant emissions, in general: exhaust pipe emissions, evaporative emissions, and dust raised from the street (see table VI.2).
Emissions from the exhaust pipe are the product of fuel combustion (whether the fuel is gasoline, diesel, or another petroleum derivative).
Because the combustion is not perfect, a number of contaminants are produced, such as carbon monoxide and nitrogenous oxides.
In addition, certain contaminants present in the fuel, such as lead and sulphur, are released into the atmosphere in the combustion process.
Exhaust pipe emissions depend on the characteristics of the vehicle, its technology and the engine size; for example, heavy vehicles tend to have higher unitary emissions (emissions per kilometre travelled) than light vehicles.
Emissions also depend on the presence of emission-reducing features such as catalytic converters; on the vehicle's maintenance status; on operational factors, such as speed of circulation and level of acceleration; and the characteristics of the fuel, such as sulphur content.
Evaporative emissions occur as the fuel evaporates into the atmosphere, and are therefore hydrocarbons (HC).
Their amount depends on the characteristics of the vehicle, operational factors such as the number and frequency of stops, geographic and meteorological factors such as altitude and environmental temperature, and most importantly, the steam pressure of the fuel.
Emissions caused by raising street dust depend on the weight of the vehicle and its circulation speed, and on the characteristics of the street, such as the average flow of vehicles on it.
They also depend, of course, on the amount of solid matter deposited on the streets that is likely to be raised by vehicles.
Unlike the particulate matter emitted by diesel vehicles' exhaust pipes, that raised by the circulation of vehicles is primarily inert matter from the earth's crust (dust), which can also contain other contaminants that have been deposited after being emitted into the atmosphere.
The composition of this particulate matter will thus depend on what city or place it is located in.
It is also necessary to emphasize that primary contaminants emitted into the atmosphere can react there, forming so-called secondary contaminants.
The most important of these are secondary particulate matter (which is part of fine particulate matter or PM2.5) and ozone.
In Santiago, it is estimated that more than 60% of the fine particulate matter is secondary matter (CONAMA, 2001a).
Vehicles generate a major part of the emissions in a city, the exact amount depending on multiple local factors.
By way of example, figure VI.1 depicts the situation in Santiago in 2000, and shows that mobile sources account for a significant percentage of primary contaminant emissions.
Furthermore, it is estimated that in 2000 mobile sources were responsible for approximately 48% of the fine particulate matter present in the atmosphere, of which buses were estimated to have contributed 21%, trucks 12% and light vehicles 15% (CONAMA, 2001a).
The emission factor, or the amount of contaminants emitted per kilometre by each type of vehicle, depends on the vehicle's technology, and it varies according to the speed of circulation (figures VI.2 and VI.3).
The emission factor also depends on the vehicles' acceleration, which in turn is related to the speed and the driving cycle.
The vehicle's technology is the way it treats emissions, which determines the amount of them.
In this context, the Euro standards established by the European Union are important.
Euro I prevailed in Europe until 1996, and compliance with it generally required a three-way catalytic converter.
That year it was replaced by Euro II, which in turn was replaced in 2000 by the more stringent Euro III, now in effect.
In the United States, heavy vehicles were required to meet the EPA91, EPA94 and EPA98 standards, similar to Euro I, II and III, respectively.
There is no emission control system for conventional vehicles.
It can be seen that in the case of a vehicle complying with the Euro I standard, as it increases speed emissions decline because the vehicle is operating more efficiently.
However, after a certain speed, which for nitrogenous oxide is approximately 50 km/h, emissions begin to increase because it takes more energy to move the vehicle at higher speeds.
For a conventional vehicle, emissions always increase with speed.
In this manner, if a measure to reduce congestion translates into a rise in operating speed, there is a decline in the emissions of catalytic converter vehicles because of the speed effect, as long as the speed is below the point at which emissions begin to climb.
This condition almost always occurs in an urban area.
For example, the average speed of private vehicles circulating in Santiago is 26 km/h during morning rush hour.
Depending on the composition of technologies of the vehicle fleet and average circulation speeds, a measure reducing congestion will either lower or raise nitrogenous oxide emissions.
The unitary emissions resulting from the speed of circulation varies according to the contaminant and the technology.
In general, for all contaminants of interest, emissions fall as the speed of travel rises (see figure VI.3).
Elasticity is the percentage change in emissions when circulation speed varies by 1%.
The negative values indicate that emissions decrease as speed increases, and vice-versa.
It can be seen that for carbon monoxide, up to a certain speed emissions decrease as speed increases.
This situation reverses at 70 or 80 km/h, depending on whether the vehicle is conventional or Euro I.
It is therefore unlikely that a measure reducing congestion could increase emissions.
Nevertheless, for nitrogenous oxides the situation is different, as noted above and as corroborated in this figure.
The second effect of a measure aimed at reducing congestion is a variation in the total distance travelled by each mode of transportation, due to the fact that some travellers change the mode they use.
In this case, whether total emissions rise or fall will depend largely on the type of measure.
If the distance travelled increases for the less polluting modes of transportation, the measure will lower total emissions, and vice-versa.
As shown in chapters III and IV, the measures designed to ease congestion can be classified according to whether they act on supply or demand.
In general, measures that modify supply by favouring the use of cars, such as redesigning, widening or building new roads and express lanes, can lead to an increase in the distance travelled by that means.
This would lead to higher emissions from that source, and possibly higher total emissions.
Conversely, measures that reduce the demand for car travel, such as road pricing in the short term, may result in smaller distances travelled by that means, and thus a decline in total emissions.
Changing the speed of circulation and the total distance travelled for each mode of transportation also has an impact on the total consumption of each type of fuel.
Emissions of some contaminants, such as CO2, sulphur and lead, depend directly on the consumption of fuels containing them, so their emission levels change proportionally.
Chapter V reported on the study that examined several measures designed to reduce congestion in Santiago using the ESTRAUS and VERDI Models.
For some of these measures, the effect of their implementation on the emission of contaminants was analysed, and the results of that analysis are presented here.
The MODEM Model is a computer program commissioned by the Ministry of Planning and Cooperation (MIDEPLAN) that makes it possible to calculate emissions of atmospheric contaminants by mobile sources.
Using as input the traffic volume and speed data supplied by the ESTRAUS Model, this model calculates the contaminant emissions generated by each mode of transportation.
More details on the MODEM Model can be found in University of Chile (2000).
The contaminants considered by MODEM are carbon monoxide (CO), total hydrocarbons (THC), nitrogenous oxides (NOx), ammonia (NH3) and breathable particulate matter (PM).
Estimates of the greenhouse gases nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) are also included.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions were estimated on the basis of fuel consumption, using the emission factors proposed by COPERT (EEA, 2000).
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions were determined by simply analysing the sulphur content of the diesel fuel consumed in Santiago.
At present, the content is 300 parts per million, which is low, considering that in some cities in Latin America it can be as high as 1,000 or more parts per million.
Lead emissions were not considered because no leaded gasoline has been sold in Santiago since 2000.
The change in emissions of resuspended street dust was not calculated.
In any case, as shown in table VI.
8, the impact of this dust on the population's well-being is considerably smaller than that of emissions of other contaminants.
In the analysis, vehicles are divided into 18 categories, according to their type and emission standard.
The table below shows the types of vehicles considered.
In other words, the same types of vehicles are considered as with the ESTRAUS Model, but differentiated by emission technology.
Public transit buses have a capacity for approximately 35 to 40 seated passengers.
Three technologies, the EPA91 (or Euro I) and EPA94 (or Euro II) standards, plus buses without any emission controls, are considered.
In Chile, the Euro III standard has been in effect for new buses since September 2002, but the existing fleet of buses is made up of vehicles with other technologies.
No distinction is made for technology in the case of trucks and intercity buses.
Commercial vehicles are medium-sized vehicles such as pickup trucks and vans, with a weight of no more than 3.5 tons.
No distinction is made for emission reduction technology in the case of diesel vehicles because of the small number of them; this situation is changing in Chile, however, because of the steady rise in the price of fuel.
Although there is a substantial fleet of conventional cars, all those sold in the Metropolitan Region of Santiago since 1992 must meet the Tier 0 emission standard (the U.S. standard), which in practice requires the use of a three-way catalytic converter (as is the case for Euro I).
Beginning in 2003, light vehicles must meet the Tier 1 standard, which is even stricter, although as of September 2001 more than 90% of new catalytic-converter vehicles met that standard.
The relative composition of vehicle types has changed over time.
For example, as was mentioned previously, beginning in September 2002 buses in Santiago must meet the EPA98 standard (Euro III), so this category should be incorporated into the model along with the Tier I light vehicles.
The MODEM Model calculates emissions produced on every stretch of the transportation network, taking into account all categories of vehicles circulating there.
Total emissions of a given contaminant are obtained by adding up those produced on all segments of motorway, using hourly, daily and yearly periods.
The calculations cover all of Greater Santiago, although the model can yield results differentiated by zones within the city.
Other results are also provided, such as consumption levels of different fuels and the density of traffic flows.
These can be compared with those from other sources, such as regional fuel consumption statistics, to check the results.
The emission factors used by the model have been developed on the basis of the European emission factors proposed in COPERT II and III (EEA, 2000) and Chilean experiments with light vehicles at the Center for Vehicle Control and Certification of the Chilean Ministry of Transport.
Emission factors take into account the speed of travel for each arc with a correction for acceleration, which depends on the speed of travel.
The results of the ESTRAUS Model for the four measures enumerated above are discussed in chapter V.
They were used by the MODEM Model to calculate the changes that would occur in contaminant emissions if these measures were implemented.
The results obtained are presented below.
With a few exceptions, the road pricing measures have positive effects on emissions.
Road pricing makes it more expensive to travel by car, which prompts drivers to switch to other modes such as the bus.
As one might expect, the most significant 4 and VI.6).reductions in emissions are obtained when the highest tolls are applied to the largest geographical areas (see tables VI.
As the scope grows larger (SE+AV2000), the proportion of private vehicles (cars and taxis) drops by nearly 2.2%; a notable improvement in bus travel times is also seen, with an average reduction of 5.5 minutes.
This translates into major decreases in the consumption of time and in traffic on the network, which definitely reduces emissions of all contaminants.
This measure would bring about a reduction of 18% in CO emissions, mainly due to the lighter traffic in cars, which would give off 14,827 tons less per year.
Another important result is the 10% cut in NOx emissions stemming from major declines in truck traffic (1,129 tons less per year) and car traffic (924 tons less per year).
This measure causes an increase in total emissions, which is attributable to the longer travel times of nearly all modes as the new buses enter the flow of traffic.
The exception is regular buses, but their lower emissions do not offset the other modes' higher emissions.
The greatest percentage increase is for CO, at 2.2%, mainly due to the higher CO emissions of cars, taxis and commercial vehicles.
The truck sector produces the most significant increase in NOx emissions (175 tons/year) and PM (16.9 tons/year).
Table VI.6 shows the results of emission changes in percentages of the base case.
It is worth mentioning that the results presented here do not reflect the long-term effects, such as changing land use as a result of road pricing measures, as commented earlier (chapter IV, section F).
It can be observed that the most restrictive road pricing (C1000) also causes a rise in global emissions.
It is possible to assign a value to the health effects resulting from changes in the level of pollution caused by the adoption of measures, including those oriented towards reducing congestion.
The methodology described below was followed in establishing the value for the city of Santiago, Chile, as part of the studies carried out to evaluate the Prevention and Decontamination Plan of the Santiago Metropolitan Region (CONAMA, 2001b).
The change in the concentration of contaminants can be calculated as a function of emission changes using atmospheric models.
Another option is to use simplified roll-back models, which assume there is a proportional relationship between atmospheric concentrations in a basin and the contaminant emissions that produce them.
A base level not dependent on emissions in the basin can also be assumed.
In the case of Santiago, approximate roll-back models have been used, considering all primary contaminants that help make up the secondary particulate matter, namely, sulphur dioxide, ammonia, nitrogenous oxides, primary particulate matter and resuspended street dust.
In the case of ozone, only nitrogenous oxides, which determine the concentrations of that contaminant in Santiago, are considered as precursors.
The so-called concentration-response functions correlate changes in atmospheric concentrations of contaminants with the effects they have on the population's health.
These functions are obtained from epidemiological studies that measure the effects on an exposed population and compare them with the various effects the same population has experienced over time, or with the effects on other populations exposed to different levels of contamination.
In recent years a great number of these studies have been carried out, making it possible to establish quantitative relationships for many of the effects shown in table VI.1.
Although most of the studies were done in the United States or Europe, a growing number of them are taking place in developing countries.
The effects in Santiago were estimated on the basis of concentrationresponse functions developed in this city for premature mortality and children's visits to emergency rooms.
Other functions were taken from the specialized literature, especially the evaluation done by the USEPA (EPA, 1999).
The effects considered are premature mortality, hospital admissions, visits to the emergency room, incidence of chronic and acute bronchitis cases, incidents of asthma attacks, missed work and days of restricted activity.
Determining the values for each of the effects is the subject of specific studies.
The first two values can be calculated by quantifying the direct costs of the effects, for example, by analysing the medical costs of hospitalization for a certain illness and multiplying the length of hospitalization and the period of convalescence by the daily wages of the person involved.
The value of lost well-being or usefulness can be calculated by means of studies that measure individuals' willingness to pay to lessen the impact of the adverse effects.
The most important of these effects is the risk of death.
Numerous studies have been carried out to estimate the willingness to pay to reduce this risk.
The USEPA analysis (EPA, 1999) covers 26 studies conducted in the United States.
For the Santiago estimate, U.S. values were applied to Chile after adjusting for the respective per capita incomes, and were combined with the results of a contingent assessment study carried out in Santiago (see table VI.7).
Combining the three previous stages, the next step is to calculate the benefit or cost associated with reducing or increasing, respectively, the emission of each of the contaminants of interest by one ton (see table VI.8).
It is reasonable to determine a single value for each contaminant, since the changes occur at a level at which most of the functions are linear.
It is evident that the contaminant with the greatest value per ton of reduction is particulate matter, followed by sulphur dioxide and ammonia.
Of the total value, treatment costs represent about 2%, lost productivity 21%, and the rest –the largest proportion– corresponds to lost well-being.
That, in turn, is dominated by the population's willingness to pay to reduce its risk of death.
It should be emphasized that these are average values.
Although developing countries have not made any commitment to reduce greenhouse gases, they have an option to assign a value to them on the basis of the "Clean Development Mechanism" included in the Kyoto Protocol.
This allows for the sale of "carbon bonds" to countries that are under an obligation to reduce these gases.
The market is not fully developed yet, but institutions such as the Prototype Carbon Fund (PCF), created by the World Bank, have purchased carbon reductions from emission-cutting projects.
For example, in the Chacabuquito Project2  in Chile, the PCF recently bought reductions at a price of US $3.50 for the reduction of each ton of CO2 equivalent.
In the future, as the demand for CO2 reductions increases, this price should rise.
Based on these considerations, reductions of greenhouse gases were valued at US $3.50 and $10.00 per ton of CO2 equivalent.
The last step is to determine the change in social well-being due to the variation in the impact on health, multiplying the changes in tons reduced that each measure brings about by the corresponding monetary values (see table VI.9).
If the health costs diminish, there is a benefit, and vice-versa.
The table also shows the positive or negative effects of the same measures on the transport system as such, for comparative purposes.
Both types of benefit have been divided into direct and total.
In the case of transport, the benefits were calculated using the VERDI Model (see chapter V, section B).
Direct benefits are those corresponding to resource savings (savings in operating costs and time); total benefits are calculated according to the traveller benefit method, and include changes in usefulness or surpluses enjoyed by users of the transport system in addition to the two indicated effects.
In the case of pollution, direct benefits include the benefits from treatment costs and productivity losses, while total benefits also include the willingness of Santiago residents to pay to avoid adverse health effects.
It can be observed that the road pricing measures analysed are generally positive from the standpoint of pollution, while the opposite is true of large executive buses, which are not good for reducing congestion, either (see chapter V, section C.2).
The road pricing schemes taken into consideration yield positive direct benefits to the transport system, but they become negative if benefits to travellers are included, primarily due to the loss of usefulness for those switching to another mode of transportation.
The results show that the benefits of reducing pollution represent an additional benefit beyond the direct benefits to transport, equivalent to 8% to 13% of them.
Total benefits, including the willingness to pay to avoid health problems, represent between 35% and 55% of direct benefits to the transport system (see figure VI.4).
A comparison with total transport benefits is not rational, since these are negative for the measures analysed.
Measures designed to ease congestion affect the entire transport system, which in the majority of cities throughout the world is one of the main culprits responsible for air pollution.
It is to be expected, then, that a measure aimed at reducing congestion will also have effects on emissions of atmospheric contaminants.
In this chapter, the effects of four anti-congestion measures on the emissions of the transport system in the city of Santiago have been shown.
The results indicate that the reduction in emissions depends on the type of measure.
When demand is acted upon by means of road pricing, emissions of the transport system are cut, at least in the short term.
This has major social benefits, but the transport system itself benefits even more.
The introduction of a new mode of transportation, 40-passenger executive buses, increases total emissions in the system, with a net social cost or harm.
Although this analysis has been carried out for Santiago, which is a highly polluted city and where the transport sector accounts for approximately 50% of environmental concentrations of fine particulate matter, the results can serve as a point of reference for other Latin American cities that have air pollution problems in addition to congestion problems.
The results suggest that the effects of pollution should be considered when a cost-benefit analysis of transportation measures is undertaken.
An integrated strategy for attacking these two problems can lead to more efficient solutions than the application of isolated for combating each of them separately.
Traffic congestion has been gaining ground throughout the world, whether developed or not, and all indications are that it will continue worsening, posing a real threat to the quality of urban life.
The explosive growth in the number of cars and the indiscriminate desire to use them, for reasons of convenience and status, especially in developing countries, are exerting increasingly strong pressure on the capacity of roads to accommodate them.
The situation does not, however, appear to have been perceived as a major problem by broad sectors of the population in developing countries, or even by the authorities.
In opinion surveys, congestion, when it appears at all, is low on the list of concerns.
Normally unemployment, crime, the quality of public health and education, poverty and other problems are attributed greater importance.
In undeveloped countries in particular, car owners have a strong desire to use them and are willing to endure the congestion that affects them; people who do not yet have cars hope to have one someday.
Beyond the oftrepeated statements that congestion is annoying and the authorities should be more diligent in combating it by building more roads, there is no major evidence of any despair or intolerance of it.
One of the few manifestations is the use of helicopters to travel around in S?o Paulo, Brazil, an option limited to people of very high income.
When it comes to commuting to work or school, not many people voluntarily leave their cars at home unless they encounter serious parking problems.
The car undoubtedly offers much greater personal mobility and a sense of security, which explains why it is so popular.
Preference surveys reveal that this mode of transportation is favoured far and above others.
For this reason, current levels of congestion have not managed to alter the balance each individual attains in his own life, which clearly gives the advantage to driving the car even if there are public transit alternatives along the same route on separate thoroughfares that are not congested.
From the individual’s perspective congestion is an irritating problem, but one that costs less than going on foot.
It is obvious that the car is so advantageous that travellers are willing to tolerate a certain level of congestion, though this level has not been quantified.
Thus, it is not necessary or possible to eliminate car travel altogether, but it must be kept under control.
Attempts to exert such control should not, however, entail higher costs than those imposed by congestion itself.
Measures that act on supply, which do not involve expanding the space dedicated to motorways in consolidated urban areas, are generally welcomed, since they represent increases in transport capacity and often do not impose any direct cost on travellers.
It remains to be seen how Latin Americans will react to measures for which a fee is charged, such as urban thoroughfares operated by concession, and whether investors will be able to recoup their investment.
It is taken for granted, and often explicitly stated, that the authorities should always provide more and better road infrastructure because of the taxes paid by travellers.
This argument is understandable, as the authorities do have an obligation to administer resources appropriately and pursue the common good, which includes dealing with congestion.
On the other hand, it is not logical to do so only by building more and more roads, since that does not provide an efficient, stable and environmentally sustainable solution to the problems observed.
Moreover, widespread construction of under- and overpasses and highways in urban areas can become counterproductive in the medium and long terms and aggravate congestion.
Hence the importance of considering the urban and social impact of actions on infrastructure.
It is no less important for citizens and motorists to understand this point.
Furthermore, the authorities should pay attention to other factors that also contribute to the common good, such as maintaining high standards for quality of life while pursuing urban development.
Among other things, this implies guaranteeing space for pedestrians and strollers and preserving the city’s architectural heritage.
Spending should also be prioritized appropriately, which ultimately means that endless roadway expansions are not advisable in view of the fact that in consolidated urban areas road building can be very complicated and burdensome.
It also causes a deterioration of the quality of life in the areas where the construction takes place, even if the new transport infrastructure favours more distant areas.
Urban motorways have many deficiencies today, and they must be corrected.
Considering the authorities’ obligations, it is logical for them to begin the fight against congestion with actions such as improving the design of intersections, marking streets appropriately, rationalizing signposting and correcting the timing of traffic lights.
They can also open lanes now used for parking and implement reversible-flow lanes on heavily travelled arteries during rush hour.
These measures can do a lot to relieve congestion, and they are generally low in cost, the main requirement being an understanding of the principles of traffic engineering.
Of course, building new roads and widening existing ones should not be ruled out where appropriate and feasible, in the context of harmonious urban development.
Advances in technology open up more possibilities for providing better solutions and more appropriate and reliable designs, and as a result there are new alternatives for acting on transport demand.
Major savings can be achieved by managing traffic signals from a central computer.
Although it yields great benefits, for many municipalities this system is not inexpensive; it can be implemented in stages or by sectors of the city, however, perhaps beginning by gradually replacing obsolete traffic lights with signals that support the necessary technology.
Obviously perseverance is required to achieve the goal, which is not always assured beyond the term of office of the competent authorities, although applying these measures in heavily travelled areas would yield visible benefits and win citizen support.
Another real need is to organize a public transit system that provides effective service.
Important benefits for both buses and cars can be derived from segregated lanes for mass transit.
It may be necessary also to reorganize lines into trunk and feeder lines, establish certain circulation preferences and improve the quality of buses and the business capacity of transit companies.
High-quality buses can also play a role, especially if their frequencies and hours of operation allow them to serve as a viable alternative for motorists.
A significant contribution can be made by transport systems that resemble a surface subway, organized on the basis of buses that circulate on separate, dedicated thoroughfares at regular intervals under centralized control, with passengers boarding and alighting at stations where they buy tickets in advance.
Although they are complicated to implement and certainly require an infusion of public funds to build, the excellent results achieved in the Curitiba programme, the Quito trolleybus and the Bogot? Transmilenio attest to the value of these systems.
Their cost is a fraction of that required to build a subway.
It is not certain that the aforementioned measures would attract many motorists to public transit, or to a subway, but there is hope that the proportion of daily trips on this mode of transportation can be maintained and that highquality, fast service can be offered.
This is important in developing countries, since more than half of all trips, even as many as 80% in some cities, are made on mass transit.
Properly designed and executed supply-side measures show interesting potential for coping with congestion.
All things considered, it should not be forgotten that better use of supply alone does not address the complex realities associated with congestion.
Other measures, particularly demand-side measures, must be incorporated to correct disparities in infrastructure use and achieve an acceptable balance for the community.
Measures that act on demand are intended to persuade a significant proportion of travellers to switch from cars to high occupancy modes of transportation or travel by non-motorized means during hours of peak traffic, or to change the times of their travel.
These measures are either viewed less favourably by motorists or are downright unpopular, since they run counter to people’s strong desire to travel on their own.
They tend to be supported however, by public transit users, who form the majority in most cities in the region.
It is clear that such measures do have a role to play in easing congestion.
Some measures are regulatory in nature and impose restrictions.
Others provide economic rewards or disincentives to encourage behaviours that mitigate congestion.
Both types should be considered in order to achieve a better overall result, in view of the fact that economic measures may not be totally effective and regulatory measures are vulnerable if enforcement is weak.
Important achievements can be made by rationalizing parking, since the availability and cost of parking affects accessibility by car.
Permanent or daytime parking bans on major arteries, charging fees to park on other streets, regulating paid parking on private lots, regulating the free parking provided by institutions and companies to the public or their employees, economic incentives to discourage driving to work, intermediary parking linked to public transit—all are potentially useful measures if applied in the appropriate context to an appropriate degree.
Some can also generate revenues for the municipality.
In any case, care should be taken when imposing highly restrictive requirements that drive away businesses and residents, or else certain areas of the city might experience depression.
Thus, there should be a comprehensive parking policy that is consistent with urban development and sustainability.
Staggering the starting time of various activities can ease congestion somewhat by prolonging the morning rush hour.
Restrictions on vehicle use can take a significant proportion of vehicles out of circulation.
If such measures are applied only in places and times of heavy congestion, such as downtown areas during the morning and afternoon rush hours, they can have more lasting effects than more widespread restrictions, since there is less incentive to purchase additional cars.
Another type of limitation is requiring the purchase of permits for circulation, which vary in price according to how many days a week a car can be driven.
Restrictions can also call attention to the congestion problem and encourage people to participate collectively in reducing it.
Road pricing, advocated by many academics and urban transit officials because it is an attractive idea for defraying the costs that society incurs, meets with more resistance by drivers than any other measure.
It does seem to achieve results, at least in the short term, but it has been challenged from every imaginable point of view.
It is inconvenient for travellers to have to pay to travel in congestion; there are doubts about the forms in which it is applied; it is criticized for the impact it has on areas adjacent to those subject to pricing; it is deemed inequitable for low-income travellers; there are fears about the degradation of activities in areas subject to pricing; the long-term effects on urban planning are called into question, since road pricing promotes urban sprawl unless strict land use controls are imposed; and not least, there are allegations of inconsistency with theory if this measure is applied without other related prices, such as those of green areas, being subject to marginal cost pricing.
Even some original supporters of road pricing have changed their minds and are now sceptical.
It appears to have limited possibilities for application, unless there is some city other than Singapore (which has very special conditions) manages to implement it successfully.
Maybe its time will come in developed countries first, if congestion reaches intolerable levels, if other effective measures do not appear on the horizon, and if the theoretical and practical doubts that still remain can be resolved favourably.
And finally, driver education as an ongoing effort beginning in early childhood can contribute to reduced congestion by teaching drivers to be disciplined and respectful to others, be they pedestrians or other drivers.
Pedestrians, in turn, should also be taught to follow the rules of the road and cross streets only at the appropriate times and places.
Demand-side measures should be analysed carefully to mitigate any undesired negative effects.
In particular, care should be taken to avoid the depression of certain areas of the city and damage to urban sustainability.
Resistance to demand-side measures may subside as travellers begin to view them as useful tools for combating congestion.
They may gain more acceptance in developed countries, since there is more awareness of tradition, historic preservation and the environment in those countries.
Combating congestion carries with it costs of varying magnitude.
Some must be paid by public agencies that implement the measures; others are paid by the citizenry as a whole, and in particular, those related to demand-side actions are paid by motorists.
There is no doubt that the brunt of congestion is borne by its primary creators, car drivers.
Especially if public resources must be invested, the question must be asked, to what extent should drivers be saved from something that each of them as an individual has brought about as a result of a conscious decision based on strong personal preference?
If motorists were the only ones harmed by congestion, one might conclude that they should be abandoned to their own fate, until the majority of them showed a clear willingness to cooperative actively in alleviating the situation and accepted measures that might inconvenience them in some way.
Some effects of congestion have a wider impact, however, and it is necessary to lessen the impact to protect people who do not contribute to it, and to save the city from worse problems.
The consequences of congestion include, but are not limited to, slower circulation of buses, higher bus fares, more accidents, increased fuel consumption, exacerbated environmental pollution, threats to competitiveness, impaired sustainability of urban life and damage to the quality of life.
The very nature of their jobs requires the authorities to serve the common good.
Traffic congestion in large cities is worsening so fast that the authorities urgently need to devise an appropriate approach to the adaptation of urban transport systems, including both public transit and cars, at the times and places with the heaviest congestion.
The strong adverse effects of congestion in both the immediate and long terms require multidisciplinary efforts to keep it in check, since there is no possibility of eliminating it altogether.
This raises the challenge of designing policies and measures that will help moderate and control congestion.
The problem is complex, and the most appropriate solutions will not be found easily.
All indications are that a combination of actions should be tried with respect to both transport supply and demand, in terms of rationalizing the use of the public motorways.
It should also be recognized that basing mobility primarily on car driving is not sustainable in the long run, though it is not necessary to think of prohibiting cars.
They have many applications that facilitate urban life, such as pursuing social activities, shopping, or travelling to distant locations.
Taking advantage of this product of development is not objectionable if the inherent costs are paid.
Using the car every day to commute to work or school in areas of heavy traffic, on the other hand, will inevitably generate congestion and pollution, as well as other major detriments to society.
Individual transportation has its place, but it should not be exaggerated.
Therefore, a better balance between owning and using cars should be attained.
It is worth pointing out that in the short term, measures aimed at tempering the indiscriminate use of cars are politically costly.
The authorities, who are elected for terms of a few years, tend not to take a long-range perspective in their decision-making, so sustainability has not often guided transport policy in Latin American cities.
This approach is even more difficult in cities that are subdivided into several municipalities that compete among themselves to attract investment and may encourage car driving as part of that effort.
A single metropolitan transit authority can be a good way to reverse this situation.
In short, a long-term strategic vision of the city’s development must be devised to strike a balance between mobility, growth and competitiveness, all of which are very necessary in today’s world, and the city’s sustainability and quality of life.
This is a complex task, calling for high professional and leadership qualities on the part of urban planning and transport authorities.
Keeping congestion under control is an ongoing, never-ending task.
Tools exist for this purpose, some of them more effective and some of them more readily accepted than others, but a set of measures which has the support of the local population can avoid the risk of succumbing in the face of the modern scourge of traffic congestion.
